Transliteration key for South Arabian in several scripts

Ancient South Arabian (ASA), also known as Old South Arabian (OSA),[1][2][3] Epigraphic South Arabian, Ṣayhadic, or Yemenite, is a group of extinct Semitic languages attested mainly in inscriptions from pre-Islamic South Arabia. The four principal languages are Sabaic, Minaic or Madhabic, Qatabanic, and Ḥaḍramitic. They were written in the Ancient South Arabian script and are attested from the early first millennium BCE until Late Antiquity.[4][5][6]

Besides the four principal Old South Arabian languages, epigraphic corpora distinguish a few minor or marginal varieties. Awsanite is the clearest example, but the corpus is small and is normally treated in close connection with Qatabanic or marginal Qatabanic material, so it should not be presented as a well-established fifth major Old South Arabian language.[7]

Old South Arabian is distinct from the living Modern South Arabian languages such as Mehri, Soqotri and Śḥerɛ̄t/Jibbali. Some modern speech varieties of southwestern Arabia, including Razihi, Faifi and Rijāl Almaʿ, preserve features that have been compared with Old South Arabian or other South Arabian varieties, but their classification is disputed and should be treated separately from the extinct epigraphic languages.[8]

Classification issues

It was originally thought that all four members of this group were dialects of one Old South Arabian language, but in the mid-twentieth century, linguist A.F.L. Beeston finally proved that they did in fact constitute independent languages.[9]

The Old South Arabian languages were originally classified (partly on the basis of geography) as South Semitic, along with Modern South Arabian and Ethiopian Semitic;[10] but many modern classifications place it, or at least Sabaic, within Central Semitic on the basis of verbal morphology.[11]

Although Sabaic, Minaic, Qatabanic and Ḥaḍramitic were formerly often treated as dialects of a single Old South Arabian language, they are now usually described as separate but closely related languages. Their common affiliation is supported by shared morphological features, especially the determinate state marked by suffixed -n and related forms such as -hn, which function as a definite article.[12][13]

At the same time, the languages differ substantially. Sabaic is especially distinctive in using h in third-person pronouns and in the causative stem, where Minaic, Qatabanic and Ḥaḍramitic generally have s¹; Sabaic also developed productive -n augmented forms of the prefix conjugation and of derived-stem infinitives.[14] The use of -k in first and second-person forms of the suffix conjugation, attested especially in Sabaic and Minaic, has often figured in comparisons with Modern South Arabian and Ethiopian Semitic. It is not, however, generally treated as decisive proof of a South Semitic genetic subgroup; similar -k suffixes in some Yemeni Arabic dialects have been explained as contact or substrate influence from neighbouring non-Arabic languages.[15]

The internal classification of Old South Arabian remains debated. Kottsieper and Stein have proposed that Sabaic may have a special relationship with Aramaic, setting it apart from the other Old South Arabian languages; this is best presented as a proposed interpretation rather than as a settled classification.[16]

The Old South Arabian languages were written in the Ancient South Arabian script. Its monumental form, commonly called musnad, was used mainly for inscriptions on stone, rock and metal, while a minuscule or cursive form, often called zabūr, was used especially on wooden sticks and palm-leaf stalks for letters, legal texts and other everyday documents.[14][13] The monumental alphabet consisted of 29 consonantal signs, broadly corresponding to the reconstructed consonant inventory of Proto-Semitic. It belongs to the early West Semitic alphabetic tradition and later served as the basis for the Ethiopic script.[12][17]

The latest securely dated Sabaic inscription was written in 559 CE; more generally, Old South Arabian epigraphic documentation extends from the early first millennium BCE to the late sixth century CE.[12][18]

Languages

Old South Arabian is conventionally used for four principal inscriptional languages: Sabaic, Minaic or Madhabic, Qatabanic, and Ḥaḍramitic. Earlier scholarship often treated these as dialects of a single Old South Arabian language, but they are now usually described as separate, closely related languages. The dates below are approximate, since the chronology of the earliest inscriptions remains debated; where relevant, they follow the commonly used long chronology.[19][14]

  • Sabaic: the language of the kingdom of Sabaʾ and, later, the main written language of the Ḥimyarite period. It is by far the best-attested Old South Arabian language, with more than 5,500 published inscriptions. Sabaic inscriptions are concentrated in Yemen, especially around Maʾrib and the central highlands, but Sabaic material is also known from Ethiopia.[14][20]
    • Early or Old Sabaic: attested from the early first millennium BCE, especially from Maʾrib and the Jawf. The earliest phase is often dated to the eighth century BCE under the long chronology, though some material may be earlier.[19][14]
    • Middle Sabaic: roughly from the third century BCE to the mid-fourth century CE. This is the best-documented period of Sabaic. Its principal regional varieties are usually described as North, Central and South Sabaic.[21]
      • North Sabaic, especially Amiritic or Haramic: a northern variety attested mainly in the Jawf. It was previously often called Haramic, but Stein treats the material as Amiritic and notes strong North Arabian influence.[22]
      • Central Sabaic: the relatively homogeneous written variety of the Sabaean heartland, often used as the standard basis for descriptions of Sabaic grammar.[21]
      • South Sabaic: the southern highland varieties associated especially with Ḥimyar and Radmān. Radmanite is therefore better treated as a South Sabaic variety rather than as a Qatabanic variety.[21][19]
    • Late Sabaic: from the mid-fourth to the sixth century CE. It developed mainly from South Sabaic, especially the written language associated with Ḥimyar, and became dominant after the political rise of the Ḥimyarites.[14][19]
  • Minaic or Madhabic: the language of the Minaean kingdom and related inscriptions from the Jawf. The historically neutral term Madhabic is sometimes used, especially for early material from the Wadi Madhāb area before the rise of the kingdom of Maʿīn. About 1,600 Minaic inscriptions are known, mainly from the Jawf, but also from the Minaean trading colony at Dedān/al-ʿUlā, from Egypt, and from Delos. Minaic ceased to be written after the fall of the kingdom of Maʿīn at the end of the second century BCE and was replaced in the Jawf by Sabaic.[14][19]
  • Qatabanic: the language of the kingdom of Qatabān, especially the area of Wadi Bayḥān and Wadi Ḥarīb southeast of Maʾrib. More than 2,000 Qatabanic inscriptions are known. The documentation begins in the first millennium BCE and continues until the disintegration of the Qatabanian kingdom in the second century CE.[14][19]
    • Awsanite or Awsānian: a small and poorly attested inscriptional corpus associated with the kingdom of Awsān. It is normally treated close to Qatabanic or marginal Qatabanic material, but because the surviving corpus is small its status should not be presented as that of a well-attested fifth Old South Arabian language.[23]
  • Ḥaḍramitic or Hadramautic: the language of the kingdom of Ḥaḍramawt. It is attested mainly from the region of Shabwa, Raybūn and the Ḥaḍramawt, with some material also known from outside South Arabia, including Delos. About 1,500 texts had been published by Stein's survey, but many are fragments, so Ḥaḍramitic remains the least well documented of the four principal languages for linguistic analysis. It is attested from the first millennium BCE until the third century CE, with some later individual instances.[14][19]

Written records

Old South Arabian is known almost entirely from inscriptions. The documentation falls into two main groups: monumental inscriptions, usually called musnad, and minuscule or cursive texts, usually called zabūr. The monumental script was used mainly on rock surfaces, stone blocks, architectural elements, bronze tablets and other durable objects, while the cursive script was used especially on wooden sticks and palm-leaf stalks.[14][19]

More than 10,000 monumental Old South Arabian inscriptions have been published, but many of them are short name graffiti, fragments or other brief texts. Fewer than 3,000 are substantial enough to provide extensive linguistic evidence. The largest formal genres are dedicatory inscriptions and building inscriptions; legal texts, commemorative texts and other official records are less frequent. Despite their formulaic character, dedicatory and building inscriptions can contain long historical or narrative passages.[14]

The monumental inscriptions are generally formal in style and are often written in the third person. Their main categories include:

  1. dedicatory inscriptions, often giving the circumstances of a dedication;
  2. building inscriptions, recording construction works and their patrons;
  3. legal and administrative texts;
  4. commemorative inscriptions;
  5. short graffiti, especially personal-name graffiti;
  6. inscriptions on everyday objects.

No substantial body of Old South Arabian literary texts, such as myths or epics, has survived. If such literature existed in written form, it is not represented in the known corpus.[19]

The wooden-stick and palm-leaf documents form a separate documentary tradition. They are written in a cursive form of the Ancient South Arabian script and preserve more everyday types of writing, including letters, legal deeds, business records, instructions, settlements, writing exercises and texts connected with ritual practice.[24] Nearly 900 texts in Sabaic and Minaic had been published by 2024.[24] Because these texts often contain first and second-person forms, informal formulae and vocabulary not otherwise known from monumental inscriptions, they are especially important for the study of everyday language, although many remain difficult to interpret.[19]

Phonology

Because Old South Arabian is written almost entirely in a consonantal script, its phonology can only be reconstructed in part. The following table gives the usual consonant inventory as reconstructed from the script and from comparison with other Semitic languages. The phonetic values of some signs, especially the sibilants and emphatic consonants, remain uncertain.[25][14]

Old South Arabian consonants
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Non-emphatic Emphatic Non-emphatic Emphatic
Plosive voiceless t ṭ k, q ʾ
voiced b d g
Fricative voiceless f ṯ ẓ s³ (ś) ṣ s¹ (s) ḫ ḥ h
voiced ḏ z ġ ʿ
Nasal m n
Lateral l
Rhotic r
Approximant w y
Lateral fricative voiceless s² (š) ḍ

The traditional transcription distinguishes three non-emphatic sibilants, conventionally written s¹/s, s²/š and s³/ś. Their exact pronunciation is disputed; the table therefore gives the conventional notation rather than treating the IPA values as certain. In spoken reading, Old South Arabian is often pronounced by analogy with Classical Arabic, but that does not necessarily reflect its ancient pronunciation.[25]

Several sound changes are visible in the written record. In Ḥaḍramitic, for example, there is evidence for changes such as ʿ > ʾ, ẓ > ṣ and ṯ > s³. In Late Sabaic, s¹ and s³ merged graphically. As in other Semitic languages, n could assimilate to a following consonant, as in forms such as ʾnfs¹ “souls” beside ʾfs¹.[25][14]

Because the script does not normally write vowels, the vowel system is poorly known. Transcriptions of Old South Arabian names in Akkadian and Greek suggest the vowels a, i and u, as in other Semitic languages, but vocalised forms used in modern scholarship are often partly hypothetical.[25]

History of research

European scholars began to decipher the Ancient South Arabian script in the first half of the nineteenth century. Emil Rödiger had already reproduced an alphabet of the “Himyarite” script from an Arabic manuscript in 1837. In 1841, Rödiger and Wilhelm Gesenius independently published attempts at decipherment; Rödiger’s readings were in several respects closer to the later accepted values, partly because he made greater use of alphabet lists preserved in Arabic manuscript tradition.[26][27]

The corpus grew rapidly in the second half of the nineteenth century. Joseph Halévy’s journey in Yemen in 1869–1870 and Eduard Glaser’s four journeys between 1882 and 1894 brought large numbers of copies, squeezes and inscriptions to European collections. This material made possible the first broader attempts to arrange the texts historically and linguistically, including Fritz Hommel’s 1893 selection of South Arabian texts and grammatical sketch.[28][29]

In the early twentieth century, Nikolaus Rhodokanakis and other Semitists made important advances in the grammatical interpretation of Sabaic and the other Old South Arabian languages. Later work, especially by A. F. L. Beeston, Walter W. Müller, Jacques Ryckmans, Christian Julien Robin, Norbert Nebes, Peter Stein and Alessandra Avanzini, refined the classification of the languages, the chronology of the inscriptions and the interpretation of the monumental corpus.[30][31]

A separate field of research opened in the second half of the twentieth century with the discovery and decipherment of wooden-stick and palm-leaf documents written in the cursive or minuscule South Arabian script, usually called zabūr. These texts include letters, legal deeds, business documents, writing exercises and records connected with ritual practice, and they preserve forms of everyday writing that differ from the formal style of monumental inscriptions.[32][33]

Recent research has also been shaped by digital corpora. The Digital Archive for the Study of pre-Islamic Arabian Inscriptions and related projects have made large parts of the Old South Arabian corpus searchable, while the publication of the Bavarian State Library’s wooden-stick collection has greatly expanded access to the minuscule texts.[34][35]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Nebes & Stein 2008.
  2. ↑ Avanzini, Alessandra (2009). "Origin and Classification of the Ancient South Arabian Languages". Journal of Semitic Studies. 54 (1): 205–220. doi:10.1093/jss/fgn048. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
  3. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-11-30. Retrieved 2017-05-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  4. ↑ Morphologies of Asia and Africa. p. 167.
  5. ↑ Stein, Peter (2011). "Ancient South Arabian". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1042–1073. ISBN 978-3-11-018613-0.
  6. ↑ Hasselbach, Rebecca (2019). "Old South Arabian". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Naʿama (eds.). The Semitic Languages (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 160–193. ISBN 978-0-415-73195-9.
  7. ↑ Avanzini, Alessandra (2004). Corpus of South Arabian Inscriptions I–III: Qatabanic, Marginal Qatabanic, Awsanite Inscriptions. Arabia Antica. Vol. 2. Pisa: Edizioni Plus.
  8. ↑ Hasselbach, Rebecca (2019). "Old South Arabian". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Naʿama (eds.). The Semitic Languages (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-415-73195-9.
  9. ↑ Beeston 1984. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeeston1984 (help)
  10. ↑ Faber, Alice (1997). "Genetic Subgrouping of the Semitic Languages". In Robert Hetzron (ed.). The Semitic Languages (1st ed.). London: Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 0-415-05767-1.
  11. ↑ Hasselbach, Rebecca (2019). "Old South Arabian". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Naʿama (eds.). The Semitic Languages (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 163–165. ISBN 978-0-415-73195-9.
  12. 1 2 3 Hasselbach, Rebecca (2019). "Old South Arabian". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Naʿama (eds.). The Semitic Languages (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 163, 173. ISBN 978-0-415-73195-9.
  13. 1 2 Multhoff, Anne (2019). "Ancient South Arabian". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Naʿama (eds.). The Semitic Languages (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 321–346. ISBN 978-0-415-73195-9.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Stein, Peter (2011). "Ancient South Arabian". In Weninger, Stefan; Khan, Geoffrey; Streck, Michael P.; Watson, Janet C. E. (eds.). The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1042–1073. ISBN 978-3-11-018613-0.
  15. ↑ Huehnergard, John; Rubin, Aaron D. (2011). "Phyla and Waves: Models of Classification of the Semitic Languages". In Weninger, Stefan; Khan, Geoffrey; Streck, Michael P.; Watson, Janet C. E. (eds.). The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 259–278. ISBN 978-3-11-018613-0.
  16. ↑ Kottsieper, Ingo; Stein, Peter (2014). "Sabaic and Aramaic — a common origin?". In Elmaz, Orhan; Watson, Janet C. E. (eds.). Languages of Southern Arabia: Papers from the Special Session of the Seminar for Arabian Studies held on 27 July 2013. Supplement to the Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. Vol. 44. Oxford: Archaeopress. pp. 81–89. ISBN 978-1-905739-81-3.
  17. ↑ Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Naʿama (2019). "Introduction". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Naʿama (eds.). The Semitic Languages (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 1–19. ISBN 978-0-415-73195-9.
  18. ↑ Stein, Peter (2020). "Ancient South Arabian". In Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca (ed.). A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 337–353. ISBN 978-1-119-19329-6.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Hasselbach, Rebecca (2012). "Old South Arabian". In Gzella, Holger (ed.). Languages from the World of the Bible. Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 160–193. doi:10.1515/9781934078631.160. ISBN 978-1-934078-61-7.
  20. ↑ Avanzini, Alessandra (1987). "Le iscrizioni sudarabiche d'Etiopia: un esempio di culture e lingue a contatto". Oriens Antiquus (in Italian). 26: 201–221.
  21. 1 2 3 Stein, Peter (2004). "Zur Dialektgeographie des Sabäischen". Journal of Semitic Studies (in German). 49 (2): 225–245.
  22. ↑ Stein, Peter (2007). "Materialien zur sabäischen Dialektologie: Das Problem des amiritischen ("haramitischen") Dialektes". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft (in German). 157: 13–47.
  23. ↑ Avanzini, Alessandra (2004). Corpus of South Arabian Inscriptions I–III: Qatabanic, Marginal Qatabanic, Awsanite Inscriptions. Arabia Antica. Vol. 2. Pisa: Edizioni Plus.
  24. 1 2 Stein, Peter (2024). "South Arabian documentation on wooden sticks: A résumé fifty years after discovery". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 53: 278–291.
  25. 1 2 3 4 Nebes, Norbert; Stein, Peter (2004). "Ancient South Arabian". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 454–487. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0.
  26. ↑ Stein, Peter (2013). "Wilhelm Gesenius, das Hebräische Handwörterbuch und die Erforschung des Altsüdarabischen". In Schorch, Stefan; Waschke, Ernst-Joachim (eds.). Biblische Exegese und hebräische Lexikographie: Das „Hebräisch-deutsche Handwörterbuch“ von Wilhelm Gesenius als Spiegel und Quelle alttestamentlicher und hebräischer Forschung, 200 Jahre nach seiner ersten Auflage. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 267–301. ISBN 978-3-11-026612-2.
  27. ↑ Rödiger, Emil (1837). "Notiz über die himjaritische Schrift nebst doppeltem Alphabet derselben". Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes (in German). 1: 332–340.
  28. ↑ Goitein, S. D. (1942). "Ḥalévy in the Yaman". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 10 (3): 557–570.
  29. ↑ Hommel, Fritz (1893). Südarabische Chrestomathie (in German). Munich: G. Reimer.
  30. ↑ Beeston, A. F. L. (1984). Sabaic Grammar. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  31. ↑ Nebes, Norbert; Stein, Peter (2004). "Ancient South Arabian". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 454–487. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0.
  32. ↑ Stein, Peter (2024). "South Arabian documentation on wooden sticks: A résumé fifty years after discovery". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 53: 278–291.
  33. ↑ Stein, Peter (2010). Die altsüdarabischen Minuskelinschriften auf Holzstäbchen aus der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek in München. Band 1: Die Inschriften der mittel- und spätsabäischen Periode. Epigraphische Forschungen auf der Arabischen Halbinsel (in German). Vol. 5. Tübingen and Berlin: Wasmuth.
  34. ↑ "Digital Archive for the Study of pre-Islamic Arabian Inscriptions". DASI. Retrieved 3 June 2026.
  35. ↑ "Ancient South Arabian Inscriptions on Wood". Bavarian State Library / Münchener DigitalisierungsZentrum. Retrieved 3 June 2026.

Bibliography

Short introductions and overviews

Grammar

  • Mounir Arbach: Le madhabien: lexique, onomastique et grammaire d'une langue de l'Arabie méridionale préislamique [Madhabic: lexicon, onomastics and grammar of a language of pre-Islamic southern Arabia]. 3 volumes. Aix-en-Provence, 1993 (Includes a grammar, a lexicon and a list of Minaean personal names)
  • Beeston, A. F. L. (1984). Sabaic Grammar. Manchester. ISBN 0-9507885-2-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Koutchoukali, Imar Yacine (November 24, 2023). “Our ʿirbīt is not like your ʿarabiyya” Linguistic and socio-political change in late antique South Arabia (550 – 850 AD) (Thesis). ISBN 978-9916-27-401-9.
  • Maria Höfner: Altsüdarabische Grammatik [Old South Arabian Grammar]. Porta Linguarum Orientalium, volume 24. Leipzig, 1943.
  • Kogan, Leonid; Korotayev, Andrey (1997). "Sayhadic Languages (Epigraphic South Arabian)". Semitic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 157–183.
  • Norbert Nebes, Peter Stein: Ancient South Arabian, in: Roger D. Woodard (Hrsg.): The Cambridge encyclopedia of the World's ancient languages Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004 ISBN 0-521-56256-2 S. 454–487 (grammatical overview with bibliography).
  • Peter Stein: Lehrbuch der Sabäischen Sprache [Textbook of the Sabaean language]. 2 volumes. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2012/2013, ISBN 978-3-447-10026-7.

Dictionaries

  • A. F. L. Beeston, M. A. Ghul, W. W. Müller, J. Ryckmans: Sabaic Dictionary / Dictionnaire sabéen /al-Muʿdscham as-Sabaʾī (Englisch-Französisch-Arabisch) Louvain-la-Neuve, 1982 ISBN 2-8017-0194-7
  • Joan Copeland Biella: Dictionary of Old South Arabic. Sabaean dialect Eisenbrauns, 1982 ISBN 1-57506-919-9
  • S.D. Ricks: Lexicon of Inscriptional Qatabanian (Studia Pohl, 14), Pontifical Biblical Institute, Rome 1989
  • Sabaic Online Dictionary

Collections of texts

  • Alessandra Avanzini: Corpus of South Arabian Inscriptions I-III. Qatabanic, Marginal Qatabanic, Awsanite Inscriptions (Arabia Antica 2). Ed. PLUS, Pisa 2004. ISBN 88-8492-263-1
  • Abraham J. Drewes, Jacques Ryckmans: Les inscriptions sudarabes sur bois dans la collection de l’Oosters Instituut conservée dans la bibliothèque universitaire de Leiden [South arabic inscriptions on wood in the Oosters Instituut collection housed in the Leiden University Library]. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2016, ISBN 3-447-10589-5.
  • Barbara Jändl: Altsüdarabische Inschriften auf Metall [Old South Arabian inscriptions on metal]. Epigraphische Forschungen auf der Arabischen Halbinsel, volume 4. Tübingen, Berlin 2009. ISBN 978-3-8030-2201-1
  • Mohammed Maraqten: Altsüdarabische Texte auf Holzstäbchen. Epigraphische und kulturhistorische Untersuchungen [Old South Arabian texts on wooden sticks. Epigraphic and cultural-historical studies]. Beiruter Texte und Studien, volume 103. Ergon-Verlag, Würzburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-95650-034-3.
    • See the remarks by Stein, Peter (2015). "Review: Beschriftete Holzstäbchen aus dem Jemen". Orientalia. 84 (1): 75–98. JSTOR 26153282.
  • Anne Multhoff: Die sabäischen Inschriften aus Marib. Katalog, Übersetzung und Kommentar [The Sabaic inscriptions from Marib. Catalogue, translation and commentary]. Epigraphische Forschungen auf der Arabischen Halbinsel, volume 9. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden (Westfalen) 2021, ISBN 978-3-86757-130-2.
  • Jacques Ryckmans, Walter W. Müller, Yusuf M. Abdallah: Textes du Yémen antique inscrits sur bois [Texts of ancient Yemen inscribed in wood]. Publications de l'Institut Orientaliste de Louvain, volume 43. Institut Orientaliste, Louvain 1994. ISBN 2-87723-104-6
  • Stein, Peter (2010). Die altsüdarabischen Minuskelinschriften auf Holzstäbchen aus der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek in München 1: Die Inschriften der mittel- und spätsabäischen Periode [The Old South Arabian minuscule inscriptions on wooden sticks from the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich 1: The inscriptions of the Middle and Late Sabaean period]. Epigraphische Forschungen auf der Arabischen Halbinsel (in German). Vol. 5. Tübingen. ISBN 978-3-8030-2200-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Stein, Peter (2023). Die altsüdarabischen Minuskelinschriften auf Holzstäbchen aus der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek in München 2: Die altsabäischen und minäaischen Inschriften [The Old South Arabian minuscule inscriptions on wooden sticks from the Bavarian State Library in Munich 2: The Old Sabaean and Minaean inscriptions]. Epigraphische Forschungen auf der Arabischen Halbinsel (in German). Vol. 10. Wiesbaden. ISBN 978-3-7520-0704-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenite_languages