CS Knowledge Base

The data below tabulates standard electrode potentials (E°), in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), at:

Temperature 298.15 K (25.00 °C; 77.00 °F);
Effective concentration (activity) 1 mol/dm³ for each aqueous or amalgamated (mercury-alloyed) species;
Unit activity for each solvent and pure solid or liquid species; and
Absolute partial pressure 101.325 kPa (1.00000 atm; 1.01325 bar) for each gaseous reagent — the convention in most literature data but not the current standard state (100 kPa).

Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the Nernst equation.

Relationships between Standard Electrode Potentials and Gibbs Free Energy

Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding Gibbs free energy changes (∆G°) can be added. Those free energy changes satisfy

∆G° = –zFE°,

where z electrons are transferred, and the Faraday constant F is the conversion factor describing coulombs transferred per mole electrons. F = 96 485 C/mol. For example, from

Fe²⁺(aq) + 2 e^– ⇌ Fe(s) (−0.44 V),

the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe²⁺(aq) ion and two electrons is 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV, or 84.907 kJ/(mol e^–). That value is also the standard formation energy (∆_fG°) for an Fe²⁺(aq) ion, since e^– and Fe(s) both have zero formation energy.

Data from different sources may cause inconsistencies. For example:

Ti³⁺
(aq) + e^– ⇌ Ti²⁺
(aq) E_3→2 = -0.37 V

Ti²⁺
(aq) + 2 e^– ⇌ Ti(s) E_2→0 = -1.63 V

Ti³⁺
(aq) + 3 e^– ⇌ Ti(s) E_3→0 = -1.37 V

We can derive an equation relating these electrode potentials:

3 x E_3→0 = 1 x E_3→2 + 2 x E_2→0

This is derived from...

∆G_3→0 = ∆G_3→2 + ∆G_2→0

...and because ∆G° = –zFE°

Considering the measured values for E_3→0, E_3→2 and E_2→0...

3 x E_3→0 = 3 x (-1.37) = -4.11 V

...but 1 x E_3→2 + 2 x E_2→0 = 1 x (-0.37) + 2 x (-1.63) = -3.63 V ≠ -4.11 V ...

...so there are discrepancies between some of the cited values. A Frost diagram will show the discrepancies clearly.

Table of standard electrode potentials

Legend: (s) – solid; (l) – liquid; (g) – gas; (aq) – aqueous (default for all charged species); (Hg) – amalgam; bold – water electrolysis equations.

Element	Half-reaction			E° (volt)	Electrons transferred	Reference
Element	Oxidant	⇌	Reductant	E° (volt)	Electrons transferred	Reference
Sr	Sr⁺ + e^–	⇌	Sr(s)	−4.101	1	^[1]
Ca	Ca⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ca(s)	−3.8	1	^[1]
Th	Th⁴⁺ + e^–	⇌	Th³⁺	−3.6	1	^[2]
Pr	Pr³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Pr²⁺	−3.1	1	Estimated^[3]
N	3 N ₂(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 HN ₃(aq)	−3.09	2	^[4]^[5]
Li	Li⁺ + e^–	⇌	Li(s)	−3.0401	1	^[5]^[6]^: 153
N	N ₂(g) + 4 H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	2 NH ₂OH(aq) + 2 OH⁻	−3.04	2	^[4]
Cs	Cs⁺ + e^–	⇌	Cs(s)	−3.026	1	^[5]
Ca	Ca(OH) ₂ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ca(s) + 2 OH⁻	−3.02	2	^[1]
Er	Er³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Er²⁺	−3	1	^[1]
Ba	Ba(OH) ₂ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ba(s) + 2 OH⁻	−2.99	2	^[1]
Rb	Rb⁺ + e^–	⇌	Rb(s)	−2.98	1	^[5]
K	K⁺ + e^–	⇌	K(s)	−2.931	1	^[5]
Ba	Ba²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ba(s)	−2.912	2	^[5]
La	La(OH) ₃(s) + 3 e^–	⇌	La(s) + 3 OH⁻	−2.9	3	^[5]
Fr	Fr⁺ + e^–	⇌	Fr(s)	−2.9	1	^[1]
Sr	Sr²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sr(s)	−2.899	2	^[5]
Sr	Sr(OH) ₂ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sr(s) + 2 OH⁻	−2.88	2	^[1]
Ca	Ca²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ca(s)	−2.868	2	^[5]^[6]^: 153
Li	Li⁺ + C ₆(s) + e^–	⇌	LiC ₆(s)	−2.84	1	^[5]
Eu	Eu²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Eu(s)	−2.812	2	^[5]
Ra	Ra²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ra(s)	−2.8	2	^[5]
Ho	Ho³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ho²⁺	−2.8	1	^[1]
Bk	Bk³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Bk²⁺	−2.8	1	^[1]
Yb	Yb²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Yb(s)	−2.76	2	^[1]
Na	Na⁺ + e^–	⇌	Na(s)	−2.71	1	^[5]^[7]
Mg	Mg⁺ + e^–	⇌	Mg(s)	−2.7	1	^[1]
Nd	Nd³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Nd²⁺	−2.7	1	^[1]
Mg	Mg(OH) ₂ + 2 e^–	⇌	Mg(s) + 2 OH⁻	−2.69	2	^[1]
Sm	Sm²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sm(s)	−2.68	2	^[1]
Be	Be₂O₃^2– + 3 H₂O + 4 e^–	⇌	2 Be(s) + 6 OH⁻	−2.63	4	^[1]
Pm	Pm³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Pm²⁺	−2.6	1	^[1]
Dy	Dy³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Dy²⁺	−2.6	1	^[1]
No	No²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	No(s)	−2.5	2	^[1]
Hf	HfO(OH) ₂ + H₂O + 4 e^–	⇌	Hf(s) + 4 OH⁻	−2.5	4	^[1]
Th	Th(OH) ₄ + 4 e^–	⇌	Th(s) + 4 OH⁻	−2.48	4	^[1]
Md	Md²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Md(s)	−2.4	2	^[1]
Tm	Tm²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Tm(s)	−2.4	2	^[1]
La	La³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	La(s)	−2.379	3	^[5]
Y	Y³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Y(s)	−2.372	3	^[5]
Mg	Mg²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Mg(s)	−2.372	2	^[5]
Sc	ScF₃(aq) + 3 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Sc(s) + 3 HF(aq)	−2.37	3	^[6]^: 792
Zr	ZrO(OH) ₂(s) + H₂O + 4 e^–	⇌	Zr(s) + 4 OH⁻	−2.36	4	^[5]
Pr	Pr³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Pr(s)	−2.353	3	^[1]
Ce	Ce³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Ce(s)	−2.336	3	^[1]
Er	Er³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Er(s)	−2.331	3	^[1]
Ho	Ho³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Ho(s)	−2.33	3	^[1]
Al	H₂AlO₃^– + H₂O + 3 e^–	⇌	Al(s) + 4 OH⁻	−2.33	3	^[1]
Nd	Nd³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Nd(s)	−2.323	3	^[1]
Tm	Tm³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Tm(s)	−2.319	3	^[1]
Al	Al(OH) ₃(s) + 3 e^–	⇌	Al(s) + 3 OH⁻	−2.31	3	^[8]
Sm	Sm³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Sm(s)	−2.304	3	^[1]
Fm	Fm²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Fm(s)	−2.3	2	^[1]
Am	Am³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Am²⁺	−2.3	1	^[1]
Dy	Dy³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Dy(s)	−2.295	3	^[1]
Lu	Lu³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Lu(s)	−2.28	3	^[1]
Sc	ScF₂⁺ + 2 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Sc(s) + 2 HF(l)	−2.28	3	^[6]^: 792
Tb	Tb³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Tb(s)	−2.28	3	^[1]
Gd	Gd³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Gd(s)	−2.279	3	^[1]
H	H ₂(g) + 2 e^–	⇌	2 H⁻	−2.23	2	^[1]
Es	Es²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Es(s)	−2.23	2	^[1]
Pm	Pm²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Pm(s)	−2.2	2	^[1]
Tm	Tm³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Tm²⁺	−2.2	1	^[1]
Dy	Dy²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Dy(s)	−2.2	2	^[1]
Ac	Ac³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Ac(s)	−2.2	3	^[1]
Yb	Yb³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Yb(s)	−2.19	3	^[1]
Cf	Cf²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Cf(s)	−2.12	2	^[1]
Nd	Nd²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Nd(s)	−2.1	2	^[1]
Ho	Ho²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ho(s)	−2.1	2	^[1]
Sc	Sc³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Sc(s)	−2.077	3	^[9]
Al	AlF₆^3– + 3 e^–	⇌	Al(s) + 6 F⁻	−2.069	3	^[1]
Cm	Cm³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Cm(s)	−2.04	3	^[1]
Pu	Pu³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Pu(s)	−2.031	3	^[1]
Pr	Pr²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Pr(s)	−2	2	^[1]
Er	Er²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Er(s)	−2	2	^[1]
Eu	Eu³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Eu(s)	−1.991	3	^[1]
Lr	Lr³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Lr(s)	−1.96	3	^[1]
Cf	Cf³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Cf(s)	−1.94	3	^[1]
Es	Es³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Es(s)	−1.91	3	^[1]
Pa	Pa⁴⁺ + e^–	⇌	Pa³⁺	−1.9	1	^[1]
Am	Am²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Am(s)	−1.9	2	^[1]
Th	Th⁴⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Th(s)	−1.899	4	^[1]
Fm	Fm³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Fm(s)	−1.89	3	^[1]
N	N₂(g) + 2 H₂O(l) + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 NH₃OH⁺	−1.87	2	^[6]^: 789
Np	Np³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Np(s)	−1.856	3	^[1]
Be	Be²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Be(s)	−1.847	2	^[1]
P	H₂PO₂^– + e^–	⇌	P(s) + 2 OH⁻	−1.82	1	^[1]
U	U³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	U(s)	−1.798	3	^[1]
Sr	Sr²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sr(Hg)	−1.793	2	^[1]
B	H₂BO₃^– + H₂O + 3 e^–	⇌	B(s) + 4 OH⁻	−1.79	3	^[1]
Th	ThO ₂ + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Th(s) + 2 H₂O	−1.789	4	^[1]
Hf	HfO²⁺ + 2 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Hf(s) + H₂O	−1.724	4	^[1]
P	HPO₃^2– + 2 H₂O + 3 e^–	⇌	P(s) + 5 OH⁻	−1.71	3	^[1]
Si	SiO₃^2– + 3 H₂O + 4 e^–	⇌	Si(s) + 6 OH⁻	−1.697	4	^[1]
Al	Al³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Al(s)	−1.662	3	^[1]
Ti	Ti²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ti(s)	−1.63	2	^[7]
Zr	ZrO ₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Zr(s) + 2 H₂O	−1.553	4	^[10]
Zr	Zr⁴⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Zr(s)	−1.45	4	^[10]
Ti	Ti³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Ti(s)	−1.37	3	^[11]
Ti	TiO(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ti(s) + H₂O	−1.31	2	^[6]^: 792
B	[B(OH)₄]^– + 4 H₂O(l) + 8 e^–	⇌	BH₄^– + 8 OH⁻	−1.24	8	^[6]^: 788
Ti	Ti ₂O ₃(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 TiO(s) + H₂O	−1.23	2	^[6]^: 792
Ga	[Ga(OH)₄]^– + 3 e^–	⇌	Ga(s) + 3 OH⁻	−1.22	3	^[6]^: 788
Zn	[Zn(OH)₄]^2– + 2 e^–	⇌	Zn(s) + 4 OH⁻	−1.199	2	^[10]
Mn	Mn²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Mn(s)	−1.185	2	^[10]
Fe	[Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻ + 6 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Fe(s) + 6 HCN(aq)	−1.16	2	^[12]
C	C(s) + 3 H₂O(l) + 2 e^–	⇌	CH₃OH(l) + 2 OH⁻	−1.148	2	^[6]^: 788
Cr	[Cr(CN)₆]^3– + e^–	⇌	[Cr(CN)₆]^4–	−1.143	1	^[6]^: 793
Te	Te(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	Te²⁻	−1.143	2	^[13]
V	V²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	V(s)	−1.13	2	^[13]
Nb	Nb³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Nb(s)	−1.099	3	^[8]
Sn	Sn(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	SnH ₄(g)	−1.07	4
Po	Po(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	Po²⁻	−1.021	2	^[14]
Cr	[Cr(edta)(H₂O)]⁻ + e^–	⇌	[Cr(edta)(H₂O)]²⁻	−0.99	1	^[6]^: 793
P	2 H₃PO₄(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	(H₂PO₃)₂(aq) + H₂O(l)	−0.933	2	^[6]^: 789
C	CO₃^2– + 3 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	HCO₂^– + H₂O(l)	−0.93	2	^[6]^: 788
Ti	TiO²⁺ + 2 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Ti(s) + H₂O	−0.93	4
Si	SiO ₂(quartz) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Si(s) + 2 H₂O	−0.909	4	^[6]^: 788
Cr	Cr²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Cr(s)	−0.9	2	^[6]^: 793
B	B(OH) ₃(aq) + 3 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	B(s) + 3 H₂O	−0.89	3	^[6]^: 788
Fe	Fe(OH) ₂(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	Fe(s) + 2 OH⁻	−0.89	2	^[12]
Fe	Fe ₂O ₃(s) + 3 H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Fe(OH) ₂(s) + 2 OH⁻	−0.86	2	^[12]
H	2 H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₂(g) + 2 OH⁻	−0.8277	2	^[10]
Bi	Bi(s) + 3 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	BiH ₃	−0.8	3	^[10]
Zn	Zn²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Zn(Hg)	−0.7628	2	^[10]
Zn	Zn²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Zn(s)	−0.7618	2	^[10]
Ta	Ta ₂O ₅(s) + 10 H⁺ + 10 e^–	⇌	2 Ta(s) + 5 H₂O	−0.75	10
Cr	Cr³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Cr(s)	−0.74	3	^[7]
Te	2 Te(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	Te₂^2–	−0.74	2	^[6]^: 790
Ni	Ni(OH) ₂(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	Ni(s) + 2 OH⁻	−0.72	2	^[1]
Nb	Nb ₂O ₅(s) + 10 H⁺ + 10 e^–	⇌	2 Nb(s) + 5 H₂O(l)	−0.7	10	^[6]^: 793
Ag	Ag ₂S(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	2Ag(s) + S²⁻	−0.69	2
Te	Te₂^2– + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 H₂Te(g)	−0.64	2	^[6]^: 790
Sb	[Sb(OH)₄]^– + 3 e^–	⇌	Sb(s) + 4 OH⁻	−0.639	3	^[6]^: 789
Au	[Au(CN)₂]^– + e^–	⇌	Au(s) + 2 CN⁻	−0.6	1
Ta	Ta³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Ta(s)	−0.6	3	^[8]
Pb	PbO(s) + H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	Pb(s) + 2 OH⁻	−0.580	2	^[8]
Ti	2 TiO ₂(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ti ₂O ₃(s) + H₂O	−0.56	2	^[6]^: 792
Ga	Ga³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Ga(s)	−0.549	3	^[8]
U	U⁴⁺ + e^–	⇌	U³⁺	−0.52	1	^[15]
P	H ₃PO ₂(aq) + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	P(white)^{[note 1]} + 2 H₂O	−0.508	1	^[10]
P	H ₃PO ₃(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₃PO ₂(aq) + H₂O	−0.499	2	^[10]
Ni	NiO ₂(s) + 2 H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	Ni(OH) ₂(s) + 2 OH⁻	−0.49	2	^[1]
Sb	[Sb(OH)₆]^– + 2 e^–	⇌	[Sb(OH)₄]^– + 2 OH⁻	−0.465	2	^[6]^: 789
P	H ₃PO ₃(aq) + 3 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	P(red)^{[note 1]} + 3 H₂O	−0.454	3	^[10]
Bi	Bi₂O₃(s) + 3 H₂O(l) + 6 e^–	⇌	Bi(s) + 6 OH⁻	−0.452	6	^[6]^: 789
Ta	TaF₇^2– + 7 H⁺ + 5 e^–	⇌	Ta(s) + 7 HF(l)	−0.45	5	^[6]^: 793
In	In³⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	In⁺	−0.444	2	^[6]^: 788
Cu	[Cu(CN)₂]^– + e^–	⇌	Cu(s) + 2 CN⁻	−0.44	1	^[13]
Fe	Fe²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Fe(s)	−0.44	2	^[7]
C	2 CO ₂(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	HOOCCOOH(aq)	−0.43	2
Cr	Cr³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Cr²⁺	−0.407	1	^[8]
Cd	Cd²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Cd(s)	−0.4	2	^[8]
Ti	Ti³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ti²⁺	−0.37	1	^[6]^: 792
Cu	Cu ₂O(s) + H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Cu(s) + 2 OH⁻	−0.36	2	^[10]
Pb	PbSO ₄(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	Pb(s) + SO₄²⁻	−0.3588	2	^[10]
Pb	PbSO ₄(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	Pb(Hg) + SO₄²⁻	−0.3505	2	^[10]
Eu	Eu³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Eu²⁺	−0.35	1	^[15]
In	In³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	In(s)	−0.34	3	^[13]
Tl	Tl⁺ + e^–	⇌	Tl(s)	−0.34	1	^[13]
Ge	Ge(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	GeH ₄(g)	−0.29	4
Co	Co²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Co(s)	−0.28	2	^[10]
P	H ₃PO ₄(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₃PO ₃(aq) + H₂O	−0.276	2	^[10]
N	N₂(g) + 8 H⁺ + 6 e^–	⇌	2 NH₄⁺	0.27	6	^[16]
V	V³⁺ + e^–	⇌	V²⁺	−0.26	1	^[7]
Ni	Ni²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ni(s)	−0.257	2	^[8]
S	2 HSO₄^– + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	S₂O₆^2– + 2 H₂O(l)	−0.253	2	^[6]^: 790
As	As(s) + 3 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	AsH ₃(g)	−0.23	3	^[13]
N	N₂(g) + 5 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	N₂H₅⁺	−0.23	4	^[6]^: 789
Ga	Ga⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ga(s)	−0.2	1	^[8]
Ag	AgI(s) + e^–	⇌	Ag(s) + I⁻	−0.15224	1	^[10]
Ge	GeO₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Ge(s) + 2 H₂O(l)	−0.15	4	^[16]
Mo	MoO ₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Mo(s) + 2 H₂O	−0.15	4
Si	Si(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	SiH ₄(g)	−0.14	4
Sn	Sn²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sn(s)	−0.13	2
O	O ₂(g) + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	HO^• ₂(aq)	−0.13	1
In	In⁺ + e^–	⇌	In(s)	−0.126	1	^[6]^: 788
Pb	Pb²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Pb(s)	−0.126	2	^[7]
W	WO ₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	W(s) + 2 H₂O	−0.12	4
Ge	GeO ₂(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	GeO(s) + H₂O	−0.118	2	^[8]
P	P(red) + 3 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	PH ₃(g)	−0.111	3	^[10]
C	CO ₂(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	HCOOH(aq)	−0.11	2
Se	Se(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₂Se(g)	−0.11	2	^[6]^: 790
C	CO ₂(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	CO(g) + H₂O	−0.11	2
Sn	α-SnO(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sn(s) + H₂O	−0.104	2	^[6]^: 788
Cu	[Cu(NH₃)₂]⁺ + e^–	⇌	Cu(s) + 2 NH ₃(aq)	−0.1	1	^[13]
Nb	Nb₂O₅(s) + 10 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	2 Nb³⁺ + 5 H₂O(l)	−0.1	4	^[6]^: 793
W	WO ₃(aq) + 6 H⁺ + 6 e^–	⇌	W(s) + 3 H₂O	−0.09	6	^[13]
Sn	SnO ₂(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	α-SnO(s) + H₂O	−0.088	2	^[6]^: 788
Fe	Fe ₃O ₄(s) + 8 H⁺ + 8 e^–	⇌	3 Fe(s) + 4 H₂O	−0.085	8	^[17]
V	VOH²⁺ + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	V²⁺ + H₂O(l)	−0.082	1	^[6]^: 793
P	P(white) + 3 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	PH ₃(g)	−0.063	3	^[10]
N	N₂O(g) + H₂O(l) + 6 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	2 NH₃OH⁺	−0.05	4	^[6]^: 789
Fe	Fe³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Fe(s)	−0.04	3	^[12]
C	HCOOH(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	HCHO(aq) + H₂O	−0.034	2	^[6]^: 788
H	2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₂(g)	0	2
Ag	AgBr(s) + e^–	⇌	Ag(s) + Br⁻	0.07133	1	^[10]
S	S₄O₆²⁻ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 S₂O₃²⁻	0.08	2
N	N ₂(g) + 2 H₂O + 6 H⁺ + 6 e^–	⇌	2 NH ₄OH(aq)	0.092	6
Hg	HgO(s) + H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	Hg(l) + 2 OH⁻	0.0977	2
Cu	[Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺ + e^–	⇌	[Cu(NH₃)₂]⁺ + 2 NH ₃(aq)	0.1	1	^[13]
Ru	[Ru(NH₃)₆]³⁺ + e^–	⇌	[Ru(NH₃)₆]²⁺	0.1	1	^[15]
N	N ₂H ₄(aq) + 4 H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	2 NH₄⁺ + 4 OH⁻	0.11	2	^[4]
Mo	H ₂MoO ₄(aq) + 6 H⁺ + 6 e^–	⇌	Mo(s) + 4 H₂O	0.11	6
Ge	Ge⁴⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Ge(s)	0.12	4
C	C(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	CH ₄(g)	0.13	4	^[13]
C	HCHO(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	CH ₃OH(aq)	0.13	2
S	S(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₂S(g)	0.144	2	^[6]^: 790
Sb	Sb₂O₃(s) + 6 H⁺ + 6 e^–	⇌	2 Sb(s) + 3 H₂O	0.15	6	^[6]^: 789
Sn	Sn⁴⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sn²⁺	0.151	2	^[8]
S	HSO₄^– + 3 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	SO ₂(aq) + 2 H₂O	0.158	2	^[6]^: 790
Cu	Cu²⁺ + e^–	⇌	Cu⁺	0.159	1	^[13]
U	UO₂²⁺ + e^–	⇌	UO₂⁺	0.163	1	^[15]
S	SO₄^2– + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	SO ₂(aq) + 2 H₂O	0.17	2
Ti	TiO²⁺ + 2 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ti³⁺ + H₂O	0.19	1
Sb	SbO⁺ + 2 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Sb(s) + H₂O	0.2	3
Fe	3 Fe ₂O ₃(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Fe ₃O ₄(s) + H₂O	0.22	2	^[18]^: p.100
Ag	AgCl(s) + e^–	⇌	Ag(s) + Cl⁻	0.22233	1	^[10]
As	H ₃AsO ₃(aq) + 3 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	As(s) + 3 H₂O	0.24	3	^[6]^: 789
Ru	Ru³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ru²⁺	0.249	1	^[19]
Pb	PbO₂(s) + H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	α-PbO(s) + 2 OH⁻	0.254	2	^[6]^: 788
Ge	GeO(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ge(s) + H₂O	0.26	2
Hg	Hg₂Cl₂(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Hg(l) + 2 Cl⁻	0.27	2	^[16]
U	UO₂⁺ + 4 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	U⁴⁺ + 2 H₂O	0.273	1	^[15]
At	At + e^–	⇌	At⁻	0.3	1	^[20]
Bi	Bi³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Bi(s)	0.308	3	^[10]
C	2 HCNO + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	(CN)₂ + 2 H₂O	0.330	2	^[8]
Cu	Cu²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Cu(s)	0.337	2	^[13]
V	VO²⁺ + 2 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	V³⁺ + H₂O	0.337	1	^[6]^: 793
Sb	Sb₂O₄(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sb₂O₃(s) + H₂O(l)	0.342	2	^[6]^: 789
At	At⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	At⁻	0.36	2	^[21]
Fe	[Fe(CN)₆]^3– + e^–	⇌	[Fe(CN)₆]^4–	0.3704	1	^[22]
C	(CN)₂ + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 HCN	0.373	2	^[8]
P	(H₂PO₃)₂(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 H₃PO₃	0.38	2	^[6]^: 789
S	2 SO₂(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	S₂O₃^2– + H₂O(l)	0.4	2	^[6]^: 790
O	O ₂(g) + 2 H₂O + 4 e^–	⇌	4 OH⁻	0.401	4	^[7]
Mo	H ₂MoO ₄ + 6 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Mo³⁺ + 4 H₂O	0.43	3
Ru	Ru²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ru(s)	0.455	2	^[19]
V	VO(OH)⁺ + 2 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	VOH²⁺ + H₂O(l)	0.481	1	^[6]^: 793
Re	Re³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Re(s)	0.5	3	^[3]
C	CH ₃OH(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	CH ₄(g) + H₂O	0.5	2
S	SO ₂(aq) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	S(s) + 2 H₂O	0.5	4	^[6]^: 790
S	4 SO ₂(aq) + 4 H⁺ + 6 e^–	⇌	S₄O₆^2– + 2 H₂O(l)	0.51	6	^[16]
Cu	Cu⁺ + e^–	⇌	Cu(s)	0.52	1	^[13]
C	CO(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	C(s) + H₂O	0.52	2	^[6]^: 788
I	I₃^– + 2 e^–	⇌	3 I⁻	0.53	2	^[7]
Te	TeO₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Te(s) + 2 H₂O(l)	0.53	4	^[6]^: 790
Cu	Cu²⁺ + Cl⁻ + e^–	⇌	CuCl(s)	0.54	1	^[16]
I	I ₂(s) + 2 e^–	⇌	2 I⁻	0.54	2	^[7]
Au	AuI₄^– + 3 e^–	⇌	Au(s) + 4 I⁻	0.56	3
As	H ₃AsO ₄(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₃AsO ₃(aq) + H₂O	0.56	2	^[6]^: 789
S	S₂O₆^2– + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 H₂SO₃	0.569	2	^[6]^: 790
Au	AuI₂^– + e^–	⇌	Au(s) + 2 I⁻	0.58	1
Mn	MnO₄^– + 2 H₂O + 3 e^–	⇌	MnO ₂(s) + 4 OH⁻	0.595	3	^[1]
S	S₂O₃^2– + 6 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	2 S(s) + 3 H₂O	0.6	4	^[6]^: 790
Fe	Fc⁺ + e^–	⇌	Fc(s)	0.63	1	Substantial literature variation^[23]
Mo	H ₂MoO ₄(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	MoO ₂(s) + 2 H₂O	0.65	2
N	HN₃(aq) + 11 H⁺ + 8 e^–	⇌	3 NH₄⁺	0.69	8	^[16]
O	O ₂(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₂O ₂(aq)	0.695	2	^[8]
Sb	Sb₂O₅(s) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Sb₂O₃(s) + 2 H₂O	0.699	4	^[6]^: 789
C	+ 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌		0.6992	2	^[10]
V	H₂V₁₀O₂₈^4– + 24 H⁺ + 10 e^–	⇌	10 VO(OH)⁺ + 8 H₂O(l)	0.723	10	^[6]^: 793
Pt	PtCl₆^2– + 2 e^–	⇌	PtCl₄^2– + 2 Cl⁻	0.726	2	^[15]
Fe	Fe ₂O ₃(s) + 6 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Fe²⁺ + 3 H₂O	0.728	2	^[18]^: p.100
Se	H ₂SeO ₃(aq) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Se(s) + 3 H₂O	0.74	4	^[8]
At	AtO⁺ + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	At⁺ + H₂O	0.74	2	^[21]
Tl	Tl³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Tl(s)	0.741	3	^[8]
No	No³⁺ + e^–	⇌	No²⁺	0.75	1	^[24]
Pt	PtCl₄^2– + 2 e^–	⇌	Pt(s) + 4 Cl⁻	0.758	2	^[15]
Br	BrO⁻ + H₂O(l) + 2 e^–	⇌	Br⁻ + 2 OH⁻	0.76	2	^[6]^: 791
Po	Po⁴⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Po(s)	0.76	4	^[8]
S	(SCN)₂ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 SCN⁻	0.769	2	^[25]^[8]
Fe	Fe³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Fe²⁺	0.771	1	^[8]
Hg	Hg₂²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Hg(l)	0.7973	2	^[8]
Ag	Ag⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ag(s)	0.7996	1	^[10]
N	2 NO₃^– + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	N ₂O ₄(g) + 2 H₂O	0.803	2	^[6]^: 789
Fe	2 FeO₄^2– + 5 H₂O + 6 e^–	⇌	Fe ₂O ₃(s) + 10 OH⁻	0.81	6	^[12]
Au	AuBr₄^– + 3 e^–	⇌	Au(s) + 4 Br⁻	0.85	3
Hg	Hg²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Hg(l)	0.85	2
Ir	IrCl₆^2– + e^–	⇌	IrCl₆^3–	0.87	1	^[6]^: 153
Mn	MnO₄^– + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	HMnO₄^–	0.9	1
Po	Po⁴⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Po²⁺	0.9	2	^[8]
Hg	2 Hg²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Hg²⁺ ₂	0.91	2	^[13]
Pd	Pd²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Pd(s)	0.915	2	^[15]
Au	AuCl₄^– + 3 e^–	⇌	Au(s) + 4 Cl⁻	0.93	3
N	NO₃^– + 3 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	HNO₂(aq)	0.94	2	^[6]^: 789
Mn	MnO ₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	Mn³⁺ + 2 H₂O	0.95	1
N	NO₃^– + 4 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	NO(g) + 2 H₂O(l)	0.958	3	^[7]
Au	AuBr₂^– + e^–	⇌	Au(s) + 2 Br⁻	0.96	1
Fe	Fe ₃O ₄(s) + 8 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	3 Fe²⁺ + 4 H₂O	0.98	2	^[18]^: p.100
Xe	HXeO₆^3– + 2 H₂O + 2 e^–	⇌	HXeO₄^– + 4 OH⁻	0.99	2	^[6]^: 792^[26]
N	HNO₂(aq) + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	NO(g) + H₂O(l)	0.996	1	^[6]^: 789
At	HAtO + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	At + H₂O	1.0	1	^[20]
V	VO⁺ ₂ + 2 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	VO²⁺ + H₂O	1	1	^[27]
Te	H ₆TeO ₆(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	TeO ₂(s) + 4 H₂O	1.02	2	^[27]
N	NO₂(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	NO(g) + H₂O(l)	1.03	2	^[16]
Br	Br₃^– + 2 e^–	⇌	3 Br⁻	1.05	2	^[16]
Sb	Sb₂O₅(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Sb₂O₄(s) + H₂O(l)	1.055	2	^[6]^: 789
I	ICl₂^– + e^–	⇌	2 Cl⁻ + I(s)	1.06	1	^[16]
Br	Br ₂(l) + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Br⁻	1.066	2	^[10]
N	N₂O₄(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 HNO₂	1.07	2	^[6]^: 789
Br	Br ₂(aq) + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Br⁻	1.0873	2	^[10]
Ru	RuO ₂ + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ru²⁺ + 2 H₂O	1.120	2	^[19]
Cu	Cu²⁺ + 2 CN⁻ + e^–	⇌	Cu(CN)₂^–	1.12	1	^[13]
I	IO₃^– + 5 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	HIO(aq) + 2 H₂O	1.13	4	^[6]^: 791
O	H₂O₂(aq) + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	H₂O(l) + HO•	1.14	1	^[6]^: 790
Au	AuCl₂^– + e^–	⇌	Au(s) + 2 Cl⁻	1.15	1
Se	HSeO₄⁻ + 3 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	H ₂SeO ₃(aq) + H₂O	1.15	2	^[6]^: 790
Ag	Ag ₂O(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Ag(s) + H₂O	1.17	2
Cl	ClO₃^– + 2 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	ClO ₂(g) + H₂O	1.175	1	^[6]^: 791
Xe	HXeO₆^3– + 5 H₂O + 8 e^–	⇌	Xe(g) + 11 OH⁻	1.18	8	^[26]
Pt	Pt²⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Pt(s)	1.188	2	^[15]
Cl	ClO ₂(g) + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	HClO ₂(aq)	1.19	1	^[28]
I	2 IO₃⁻ + 12 H⁺ + 10 e^–	⇌	I ₂(s) + 6 H₂O	1.2	10	^[16]
Mn	MnO ₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Mn²⁺ + 2 H₂O	1.224	2	^[10]
O	O ₂(g) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	2 H₂O	1.229	4	^[7]
N	N₂H₅⁺ + 3 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 NH₄⁺	1.28	2	^[6]^: 789
Cl	ClO₄⁻ + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	ClO₃⁻ + H₂O	1.23	2	^[29]
Ru	[Ru(bipy) ₃]³⁺ + e^–	⇌	[Ru(bipy) ₃]²⁺	1.24	1	^[1]
Xe	HXeO₄^– + 3 H₂O + 6 e^–	⇌	Xe(g) + 7 OH⁻	1.24	6	^[6]^: 792^[26]
N	2 NO₃^– + 12 H⁺ + 10 e^–	⇌	N₂(g) + 6 H₂O(l)	1.25	10	^[6]^: 789
Tl	Tl³⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Tl⁺	1.25	2	^[6]^: 788
N	2 HNO₂(aq) + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	N₂O(g) + 3 H₂O(l)	1.297	4	^[6]^: 789
Cr	Cr₂O₇²⁻ + 14 H⁺ + 6 e^–	⇌	2 Cr³⁺ + 7 H₂O	1.33	6	^[4]^: 1005
N	NH₃OH⁺ + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	NH₄⁺ + H₂O(l)	1.35	2	^[6]^: 789
Cl	Cl ₂(g) + 2 e^–	⇌	2 Cl⁻	1.36	2	^[7]
Ru	RuO₄^– + 8 H⁺ + 5 e^–	⇌	Ru²⁺ + 4 H₂O	1.368	5	^[19]
Ru	RuO ₄ + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	RuO ₂ + 2 H₂O	1.387	4	^[19]
Co	CoO ₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	Co³⁺ + 2 H₂O	1.42	1
N	2 NH ₃OH⁺ + H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	N₂H₅⁺ + 2 H₂O	1.42	2	^[4]
I	2 HIO(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	I ₂(s) + 2 H₂O	1.44	2	^[6]^: 791
Br	BrO₃⁻ + 5 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	HBrO(aq) + 2 H₂O	1.447	4	^[6]^: 791
Pb	β-PbO ₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Pb²⁺ + 2 H₂O	1.46	2	^[13]
Pb	α-PbO ₂(s) + 4 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Pb²⁺ + 2 H₂O	1.468	2	^[13]
Br	2 BrO₃⁻ + 12 H⁺ + 10 e^–	⇌	Br ₂(l) + 6 H₂O	1.48	10
At	HAtO₃ + 4 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	HAtO + 2 H₂O	1.5	4	^[20]
Mn	MnO₄^– + 8 H⁺ + 5 e^–	⇌	Mn²⁺ + 4 H₂O	1.51	5	^[16]
O	HO^• ₂ + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	H ₂O ₂(aq)	1.51	1
Au	Au³⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Au(s)	1.52	3
Ru	RuO₄^2– + 8 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	Ru²⁺ + 4 H₂O	1.563	4	^[19]
N	2 NO(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	N₂O(g) + H₂O(l)	1.59	2	^[6]^: 789
Ni	NiO ₂(s) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Ni²⁺ + 2 OH⁻	1.59	2
Ce	Ce⁴⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ce³⁺	1.61	1
Cl	2 HClO(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Cl ₂(g) + 2 H₂O	1.63	2	^[28]
I	IO₄⁻ + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	IO₃⁻ + H₂O	1.64	2	^[29]
Ag	Ag ₂O ₃(s) + 6 H⁺ + 4 e^–	⇌	2 Ag⁺ + 3 H₂O	1.67	4
Cl	HClO ₂(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	HClO(aq) + H₂O	1.67	2	^[28]
Pb	Pb⁴⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Pb²⁺	1.69	2	^[13]
Mn	MnO₄⁻ + 4 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	MnO ₂(s) + 2 H₂O	1.7	3	^[16]
Br	BrO₄⁻ + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	BrO₃⁻ + H₂O	1.74	2	^[29]
Ag	AgO(s) + 2 H⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ag⁺ + H₂O	1.77	1
N	N₂O(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	N₂(g) + H₂O(l)	1.77	2	^[6]^: 789
O	H ₂O ₂(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 H₂O	1.78	2	^[28]
Au	Au⁺ + e^–	⇌	Au(s)	1.83	1	^[13]
Co	Co³⁺ + e^–	⇌	Co²⁺	1.92	1	^[8]
Ag	Ag²⁺ + e^–	⇌	Ag⁺	1.98	1	^[13]
O	S₂O₈^2– + 2 e^–	⇌	2 SO₄^2–	2.01	2	^[10]
O	O ₃(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	O ₂(g) + H₂O	2.075	2	^[15]
Mn	HMnO₄⁻ + 3 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	MnO ₂(s) + 2 H₂O	2.09	2
Xe	XeO ₃(aq) + 6 H⁺ + 6 e^–	⇌	Xe(g) + 3 H₂O	2.12	6	^[6]^: 792^[26]
Xe	H ₄XeO ₆(aq) + 8 H⁺ + 8 e^–	⇌	Xe(g) + 6 H₂O	2.18	8	^[6]^: 792^[26]
Fe	FeO₄²⁻ + 8 H⁺ + 3 e^–	⇌	Fe³⁺ + 4 H₂O	2.2	3	^[30]
Xe	XeF ₂(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	Xe(g) + 2 HF(aq)	2.32	2	^[26]^[28]
O	HO• + H⁺ + e^–	⇌	H₂O(l)	2.38	1	^[6]^: 790
Xe	H ₄XeO ₆(aq) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	XeO ₃(aq) + 3 H₂O	2.42	2	^[26]^[6]^: 792
F	F ₂(g) + 2 e^–	⇌	2 F⁻	2.87	2	^[6]^: 153^[7]^[13]
Cm	Cm⁴⁺ + e^–	⇌	Cm³⁺	3.0	1	Estimated^[3]
F	F ₂(g) + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^–	⇌	2 HF(aq)	3.077	2	^[3]
Tb	Tb⁴⁺ + e^–	⇌	Tb³⁺	3.1	1	Estimated^[3]
Pr	Pr⁴⁺ + e^–	⇌	Pr³⁺	3.2	1	Estimated^[3]
Kr	KrF ₂(aq) + 2 e^–	⇌	Kr(g) + 2 F⁻	3.27	2	Estimated^[31]

Notes

1 2 Not specified in the indicated reference, but assumed due to the difference between the value −0.454 and that computed by (2×(−0.499) + (−0.508))/3 = −0.502, exactly matching the difference between the values for white (−0.063) and red (−0.111) phosphorus in equilibrium with PH₃.

References

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 Lide, David R., ed. (2006). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0487-3.
↑ Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1263
1 2 3 4 5 6 Bratsch, Stephen G. (July 29, 1988) [1 March 1988]. "Standard electrode potentials and temperature coefficients in water at 298.15 K" (PDF). Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 18 (1). American Institute of Physics (published 1989): 1–21. Bibcode:1989JPCRD..18....1B. doi:10.1063/1.555839 – via NIST.
1 2 3 4 5 Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. doi:10.1016/C2009-0-30414-6. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Vanýsek, Petr (2011). "Electrochemical Series". In Haynes, William M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–80–9. ISBN 978-1-4398-5512-6.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 Atkins, Peter; Overton, Tina; Rourke, Jonathan; Weller, Mark; Armstrong, Fraser; Hagerman, Michael (2010). Inorganic Chemistry (5th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-42-921820-7.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Atkins, Peter W. (1997). Physical Chemistry (6th ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 9780716734659.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Petr Vanysek. "Electrochemical series" (PDF). depa.fquim.unam.mx. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-09-16.
↑ David R. Lide, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Internet Version 2005, http://www.hbcpnetbase.com Archived 2017-07-24 at the Wayback Machine, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Vanýsek, Petr (2012). "Electrochemical Series". In Haynes, William M. (ed.). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (93rd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–80. ISBN 9781439880494.
↑ Aylward, Gordon; Findlay, Tristan (2008). SI Chemical Data (6th ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-81638-7.
1 2 3 4 5 "compounds information". Iron. WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Bard, Allen J.; Parsons, Roger; Jordan, Joseph (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solution. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-7291-8.
↑ Brown, Susan A.; Brown, Paul L. (2020). "The pH-potential diagram for polonium". The Aqueous Chemistry of Polonium and the Practical Application of its Thermochemistry. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819308-2.00004-8. ISBN 978-0-12-819308-2. S2CID 213141476.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. (2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 9781118312803.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Lee, J. L. (1983) [1977]. A New Concise Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). London / Wokingham, Berkshire: English Language Book Society & Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK). p. 107. ISBN 0-442-30179-0. OL 4079768W – via the Internet Archive.
↑ Pourbaix, Marcel (1966). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions. Houston, Texas; Cebelcor, Brussels: NACE International. OCLC 475102548.
1 2 3 Pang, Suh Cem; Chin, Suk Fun; Anderson, Marc A. (July 2007). "Redox equilibria of iron oxides in aqueous-based magnetite dispersions: Effect of pH and redox potential". J. Colloid Interface Sci. 311 (1): 94–101. Bibcode:2007JCIS..311...94P. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2007.02.058. PMID 17395194. Retrieved 2017-03-26.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1077
1 2 3 Lavrukhina, Avgusta Konstantinovna; Pozdni︠a︡kov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1970). Analytical chemistry of technetium, promethium, astatine and francium. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor-Humphrey Science Publishers. p. 237. ISBN 0-250-39923-7. OCLC 186926.
1 2 Champion, J.; Alliot, C.; Renault, E.; Mokili, B. M.; Chérel, M.; Galland, N.; Montavon, G. (2009-12-16). "Astatine Standard Redox Potentials and Speciation in Acidic Medium" (PDF). The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 114 (1). American Chemical Society (ACS): 576–582. doi:10.1021/jp9077008. ISSN 1089-5639. PMID 20014840. S2CID 15738065.
↑ Rock, Peter A. (February 1966). "The Standard Oxidation Potential of the Ferrocyanide-Ferricyanide Electrode at 25° and the Entropy of Ferrocyanide Ion". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 70 (2): 576–580. doi:10.1021/j100874a042. ISSN 0022-3654.
↑ Pavlishchuk, Vitaly V.; Addison, Anthony W. (January 2000). "Conversion constants for redox potentials measured versus different reference electrodes in acetonitrile solutions at 25°C". Inorganica Chimica Acta. 298 (1): 97–102. doi:10.1016/S0020-1693(99)00407-7.
↑ Toyoshima, A.; Kasamatsu, Y.; Tsukada, K.; Asai, M.; Kitatsuji, Y.; Ishii, Y.; Toume, H.; Nishinaka, I.; Haba, H.; Ooe, K.; Sato, W.; Shinohara, A.; Akiyama, K.; Nagame, Y. (8 July 2009). "Oxidation of element 102, nobelium, with flow electrolytic column chromatography on an atom-at-a-time scale". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 131 (26): 9180–1. Bibcode:2009JAChS.131.9180T. doi:10.1021/ja9030038. PMID 19514720.
↑ Kaufmann, H. P. (1925). "Das freie Rhodan und seine Anwendung in der Maßanalyse. Eine neue Kennzahl der Fette" [Unbound rhodanium and its application to elemental analysis: A new measurement technique for fats]. Archiv der Pharmazie und Berichte der Deutschen Pharmazeutischen Gesellschaft (in German). 263 (41–47): 675–721. doi:10.1002/ardp.19252634104 – via HathiTrust.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "compounds information". Xenon. WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements.
1 2 Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999), Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.), New York: Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0-471-19957-5.
1 2 3 4 5 Ghosh, Abhik; Berg, Steffen (2014). Arrow Pushing in Inorganic Chemistry: A logical approach to the chemistry of the main-group elements. Hoboken: Wiley. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-118-17398-5.
1 2 3 Appelman, Evan H. (1973-04-01). "Nonexistent compounds. Two case histories". Accounts of Chemical Research. 6 (4). American Chemical Society (ACS): 113–117. doi:10.1021/ar50064a001. ISSN 0001-4842.
↑ Courtney, Arlene. "Oxidation Reduction Chemistry of the Elements". Ch 412 Advanced Inorganic Chemistry: Reading Materials. Western Oregon University.
↑ Leszczyński, P.J.; Grochala, W. (2013). "Strong Cationic Oxidizers: Thermal Decomposition, Electronic Structure and Magnetism of Their Compounds" (PDF). Acta Chim. Slov. 60 (3): 455–470. PMID 24169699. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.

External links

Chemistry LibreTexts (2021-04-26). "P1: Standard Reduction Potentials by Element". Chemistry LibreTexts. Retrieved 2021-11-30.
California State University, Northridge (CSUN). "Standard Reduction Potentials" (PDF). csun.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-12-15. Retrieved 2021-11-30.
Wardman, Peter (1989). "Reduction potentials of one-electron couples involving free radicals in aqueous solution" (PDF). srd.nist.gov. p. 1637. Bibcode:1989JPCRD..18.1637W. doi:10.1063/1.555843. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2021-11-30.
http://www.jesuitnola.org/upload/clark/Refs/red_pot.htm Archived 2008-07-20 at the Wayback Machine
https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015049/http://www.fptl.ru/biblioteka/spravo4niki/handbook-of-Chemistry-and-Physics.pdf
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/tables/electpot.html#c1

[rwP-16] 1 2 Not specified in the indicated reference, but assumed due to the difference between the value −0.454 and that computed by (2×(−0.499) + (−0.508))/3 = −0.502, exactly matching the difference between the values for white (−0.063) and red (−0.111) phosphorus in equilibrium with PH₃.

[CRC-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 Lide, David R., ed. (2006). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0487-3.

[Greenwood1263-2] Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1263

[VanSrc-3] 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bratsch, Stephen G. (July 29, 1988) [1 March 1988]. "Standard electrode potentials and temperature coefficients in water at 298.15 K" (PDF). Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 18 (1). American Institute of Physics (published 1989): 1–21. Bibcode:1989JPCRD..18....1B. doi:10.1063/1.555839 – via NIST.

[Gre-4] 1 2 3 4 5 Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. doi:10.1016/C2009-0-30414-6. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.

[van92-5] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Vanýsek, Petr (2011). "Electrochemical Series". In Haynes, William M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–80–9. ISBN 978-1-4398-5512-6.

[AS5-6] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 Atkins, Peter; Overton, Tina; Rourke, Jonathan; Weller, Mark; Armstrong, Fraser; Hagerman, Michael (2010). Inorganic Chemistry (5th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-42-921820-7.

[Atk-7] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Atkins, Peter W. (1997). Physical Chemistry (6th ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 9780716734659.

[van??-8] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Petr Vanysek. "Electrochemical series" (PDF). depa.fquim.unam.mx. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-09-16.

[9] David R. Lide, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Internet Version 2005, http://www.hbcpnetbase.com Archived 2017-07-24 at the Wayback Machine, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005.

[van-10] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Vanýsek, Petr (2012). "Electrochemical Series". In Haynes, William M. (ed.). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (93rd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–80. ISBN 9781439880494.

[si-11] Aylward, Gordon; Findlay, Tristan (2008). SI Chemical Data (6th ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-81638-7.

[webelements_fe-12] 1 2 3 4 5 "compounds information". Iron. WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements.

[Bar-13] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Bard, Allen J.; Parsons, Roger; Jordan, Joseph (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solution. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-7291-8.

[14] Brown, Susan A.; Brown, Paul L. (2020). "The pH-potential diagram for polonium". The Aqueous Chemistry of Polonium and the Practical Application of its Thermochemistry. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819308-2.00004-8. ISBN 978-0-12-819308-2. S2CID 213141476.

[Bar2-15] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. (2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 9781118312803.

[Lee-17] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Lee, J. L. (1983) [1977]. A New Concise Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). London / Wokingham, Berkshire: English Language Book Society & Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK). p. 107. ISBN 0-442-30179-0. OL 4079768W – via the Internet Archive.

[Pou-18] Pourbaix, Marcel (1966). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions. Houston, Texas; Cebelcor, Brussels: NACE International. OCLC 475102548.

[Pang2007-19] 1 2 3 Pang, Suh Cem; Chin, Suk Fun; Anderson, Marc A. (July 2007). "Redox equilibria of iron oxides in aqueous-based magnetite dispersions: Effect of pH and redox potential". J. Colloid Interface Sci. 311 (1): 94–101. Bibcode:2007JCIS..311...94P. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2007.02.058. PMID 17395194. Retrieved 2017-03-26.

[Greenwood1077-20] 1 2 3 4 5 6 Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1077

[:0-21] 1 2 3 Lavrukhina, Avgusta Konstantinovna; Pozdni︠a︡kov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1970). Analytical chemistry of technetium, promethium, astatine and francium. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor-Humphrey Science Publishers. p. 237. ISBN 0-250-39923-7. OCLC 186926.

[:2-22] 1 2 Champion, J.; Alliot, C.; Renault, E.; Mokili, B. M.; Chérel, M.; Galland, N.; Montavon, G. (2009-12-16). "Astatine Standard Redox Potentials and Speciation in Acidic Medium" (PDF). The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 114 (1). American Chemical Society (ACS): 576–582. doi:10.1021/jp9077008. ISSN 1089-5639. PMID 20014840. S2CID 15738065.

[23] Rock, Peter A. (February 1966). "The Standard Oxidation Potential of the Ferrocyanide-Ferricyanide Electrode at 25° and the Entropy of Ferrocyanide Ion". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 70 (2): 576–580. doi:10.1021/j100874a042. ISSN 0022-3654.

[24] Pavlishchuk, Vitaly V.; Addison, Anthony W. (January 2000). "Conversion constants for redox potentials measured versus different reference electrodes in acetonitrile solutions at 25°C". Inorganica Chimica Acta. 298 (1): 97–102. doi:10.1016/S0020-1693(99)00407-7.

[25] Toyoshima, A.; Kasamatsu, Y.; Tsukada, K.; Asai, M.; Kitatsuji, Y.; Ishii, Y.; Toume, H.; Nishinaka, I.; Haba, H.; Ooe, K.; Sato, W.; Shinohara, A.; Akiyama, K.; Nagame, Y. (8 July 2009). "Oxidation of element 102, nobelium, with flow electrolytic column chromatography on an atom-at-a-time scale". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 131 (26): 9180–1. Bibcode:2009JAChS.131.9180T. doi:10.1021/ja9030038. PMID 19514720.

[26] Kaufmann, H. P. (1925). "Das freie Rhodan und seine Anwendung in der Maßanalyse. Eine neue Kennzahl der Fette" [Unbound rhodanium and its application to elemental analysis: A new measurement technique for fats]. Archiv der Pharmazie und Berichte der Deutschen Pharmazeutischen Gesellschaft (in German). 263 (41–47): 675–721. doi:10.1002/ardp.19252634104 – via HathiTrust.

[webelements_xe-27] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "compounds information". Xenon. WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements.

[Cotton-28] 1 2 Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999), Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.), New York: Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0-471-19957-5.

[AP-29] 1 2 3 4 5 Ghosh, Abhik; Berg, Steffen (2014). Arrow Pushing in Inorganic Chemistry: A logical approach to the chemistry of the main-group elements. Hoboken: Wiley. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-118-17398-5.

[:1-30] 1 2 3 Appelman, Evan H. (1973-04-01). "Nonexistent compounds. Two case histories". Accounts of Chemical Research. 6 (4). American Chemical Society (ACS): 113–117. doi:10.1021/ar50064a001. ISSN 0001-4842.

[wou-31] Courtney, Arlene. "Oxidation Reduction Chemistry of the Elements". Ch 412 Advanced Inorganic Chemistry: Reading Materials. Western Oregon University.

[32] Leszczyński, P.J.; Grochala, W. (2013). "Strong Cationic Oxidizers: Thermal Decomposition, Electronic Structure and Magnetism of Their Compounds" (PDF). Acta Chim. Slov. 60 (3): 455–470. PMID 24169699. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.

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