In the Circassian language, pronouns belong to the following groups: personal, demonstrative, possessive, interrogative, reflexive, determinative, and indefinite.

Personal pronouns

In Circassian, personal pronouns are strictly expressed only in the first person and second person in singular and plural forms.[1][2]

Circassian does not have gender-distinguishing pronouns. Unlike most languages, it does not have "traditional" third-person pronouns (he, she, it, they). The concept of the third person is expressed using demonstrative pronouns.

Case 1st Person (I / We) 2nd Person (You)
West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian) West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian)
Singular
Absolutive сэ [sa] сэ [sa] о [wa] уэ [wa]
Ergative сэ сэ о уэ
Instrumental сэркӏэ сэркӏэ оркӏэ уэркӏэ
Adverbial сэрэу сэрэу орэу уэрэу
Plural
Absolutive тэ [ta] дэ [da] шъо [ʃʷa] фэ [fa]
Ergative тэ дэ шъо фэ
Instrumental тэркӏэ дэркӏэ шъоркӏэ фэркӏэ
Adverbial тэрэу дэрэу шъорэу фэрэу

Examples:

Westсэоусэплъы
Eastсэуэусоплъ
IyouI am looking at you
"I am looking at you."
Westмыӏофырсэркӏэкъины
Eastмыӏуэхурсэркӏэгугъущ
thisworkfor mehard
"This work is hard for me."

Demonstrative pronouns (3rd Person)

Circassian uses demonstrative pronouns to fulfill the role of the third person. Unlike English "he", "she", or "it", which are abstract references, Circassian pronouns are spatial—they point to "that one" or "this one".[3]

There are three main demonstratives, distinguished by distance and visibility:

  • а (Neutral/Invisible): Refers to someone/something not visible, abstract, or mentioned previously.
  • мы (Proximal): Refers to someone/something visible and close to the speaker ("this one").
  • мо (Distal): Refers to someone/something visible but far away ("that one over there").

Forms

A major difference between West and East Circassian appears in the Oblique/Ergative case: West uses -щ (-ɕ), while East uses -бы (-bə).[4]

Case Neutral (He/She/That) Proximal (This) Distal (That yonder)
West East West East West East
Singular
Absolutive ар ар мыр мыр мор мор
Ergative ащ абы мыщ мыбы мощ мобы
Instrumental ащкӏэ абыкӏэ мыщкӏэ мыбыкӏэ мощкӏэ мобыкӏэ
Adverbial арэу арэу мырэу мырэу морэу морэу
Plural
Absolutive ахэр ахэр мыхэр мыхэр мохэр мохэр
Ergative ахэмэ абыхэм мыхэмэ мыбыхэм мохэмэ мобыхэм
Instrumental ахэмкӏэ абыхэмкӏэ мыхэмкӏэ мыбыхэмкӏэ мохэмкӏэ мобыхэмкӏэ
Adverbial ахэрэу ахэрэу мыхэрэу мыхэрэу мохэрэу мохэрэу

Examples:

Westмороуимашинэ
Eastморуэуи машинщ
that (visible)youyour car
"That is your car."
Westащкъысиӏуагъэрмыщесӏотэжьыгъ
Eastабыкъызжиӏармыбыжесӏэжащ
that one (erg.)the thing (s)he told methis one (erg.)I told him back
"I told this person the things that person told me."
Westахэмкӏэмыджанэумощщыгъэрдахэ
Eastабыхэмкӏэмыджанэумобыщыгъырдахэщ
for themthisshirtthat onewearingbeautiful
"According to them, the shirt that person is wearing is beautiful."

Reflexive pronouns

Circassian has specific reflexive pronouns used when the subject and object are the same person (e.g., "He hurt himself"). These are primarily used for the third person.[5][6]

Case Singular (Himself/Herself) Plural (Themselves)
West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian) West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian)
Absolutive ежь езы / ежь ежьхэр езыхэр
Ergative ежь езым ежьхэмэ езыхэм
Instrumental ежькӏэ езымкӏэ ежьхэмкӏэ езыхэмкӏэ

Example:

Westежьсэкъысиӏуагъ
Eastезымсэкъызжиӏащ
himselfI(s)he told me
"He told me himself."

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns indicate ownership ("mine", "yours"). In Circassian, these are distinct from the possessive prefixes attached to nouns.[7]

The base form of a possessive pronoun (e.g. сэсый "mine", оуй "yours", ий "his") has no noun case: it is used predicatively, as the predicate of sentences such as "this house is mine", and it never takes case suffixes in this function. When the pronoun instead stands for the possessed object itself — "the one that is mine", "the one that is yours" — it is substantivized: it behaves like a noun and takes the regular noun case suffixes, the absolutive -р (сэсыер "the one that is mine"), the ergative -м (сэсыем) and the instrumental -(м)кӏэ (сэсыемкӏэ "with mine").

Form 1st (Mine/Ours) 2nd (Yours) 3rd (His/Theirs)
West East West East West East
Singular Possessor
Base form ("mine") — caseless сэсый сэсей оуй уоуэ/уий ий ей
Substantivized
("the one that is mine")		 Absolutive сэсыер сэсейр оуиер уийр иер ейр
Ergative сэсыем сэсейм оуим уийм ием ейм
Instrumental сэсыемкӏэ сэсеймкӏэ оуемкӏэ уоуэмкӏэ иемкӏэ еймкӏэ
Plural Possessor
Base form ("ours") — caseless тэтый дэдей шъошъуй фий яй яй
Substantivized
("the one that is ours")		 Absolutive тэтыер дэдейр шъошъуиер фийр яер яйр
Ergative тэтыем дэдейм шъошъуим фийм яем яйм
Instrumental тэтыемкӏэ дэдеймкӏэ шъошъуемкӏэ фиймкӏэ яемкӏэ яймкӏэ

The third person also has an emphatic (reflexive) form built on ежь "self": ежьый "his own" (East езым ей), as in мыр оуя ежья? "Is this yours or his (own)?".

Examples:

Westмыджэгуалъэхэрсэсиех
Eastмыджэгуалъэхэрсэсейхэщ
thistoysthey are mine
"These toys are mine."
Westмоунэплъэгъурэсэсый
Eastмоунэплъагъурисэсейщ
thathouseseeingmine
"That house you are seeing is mine."
Westмыроуяежья?
Eastмыруоуэхьэмэрэ езым ей?
thisyours?is it his?
"Is this yours or his?"

Examples of the substantivized (case-marked) forms:

Westсэсыерины
Eastсэсейринщ
the one that is minebig
"Mine (the one that is mine) is big."
Westоуиердахэ
Eastуийрдахэщ
the one that is yoursbeautiful
"Yours (the one that is yours) is beautiful."
Westсэсыемеплъ
Eastсэсеймеплъ
at the one that is mine (erg.)look!
"Look at mine."
Westоуемкӏэтхэ
Eastуоуэмкӏэтхэ
with yours (instr.)write!
"Write with yours."

Predicative forms

Possessive pronouns are commonly used as predicates ("this is mine"). When the subject of such a predicate is a first or second person, the pronoun takes the corresponding absolutive person prefix, producing a single-word predicate: у-сэсый "you are mine", сы-оуй "I am yours". A third-person plural subject is marked by the plural suffix (West -(э)х, East -хэ): сэсиех "they are mine".

After a person prefix, the third-person possessive pronouns ий "his" and яй "theirs" appear with the linking consonant р: с-рый "I am his", у-ряй "you are theirs".

A dash marks combinations in which the possessor and the subject refer (in part) to the same person(s) (e.g. *"I am mine", *"we are mine"); such combinations do not occur.

West Adyghe
Possessor Subject
I You (sg.) He/She/It We You (pl.) They
Mine — усэсый сэсый — шъусэсый сэсиех
Yours (sg.) сыоуй — оуй тыоуй — оуиех
His/Hers срый урый ий трый шъурый иех
Ours — утэтый тэтый — шъутэтый тэтиех
Yours (pl.) сышъошъуй — шъошъуй тышъошъуй — шъошъуиех
Theirs сряй уряй яй тряй шъуряй яех

In Kabardian the same construction uses the Kabardian person prefixes (сы-, у-, ды-, фы-), and the final element -ый of the Western forms corresponds to Eastern -ий/-ей (West сыоуй → East сыуэуий). In declarative sentences the predicate additionally takes the affirmative suffix -щ: усэсейщ "you are mine", сэсейхэщ "they are mine". The suffix is absent in questions: усэсей? "are you mine?".

East Circassian (Kabardian)
Possessor Subject
I You (sg.) He/She/It We You (pl.) They
Mine — усэсей сэсей — фысэсей сэсейхэ
Yours (sg.) сыуэуий — уоуэ/уий дыуэуий — уэуийхэ
His/Hers сырей урей ей дырей фырей ейхэ
Ours — удэдей дэдей — фыдэдей дэдейхэ
Yours (pl.) сыфий — фий дыфий — фийхэ
Theirs сыряй уряй яй дыряй фыряй яйхэ

Examples:

Westосэусэсый
Eastуэсэусэсейщ
youIyou are mine
"You are mine."
Westсэшъошъусэсый
Eastсэфэфысэсейщ
Iyou (pl.)you (pl.) are mine
"You (plural) are mine."
Westсэосыоуй
Eastсэуэсыуэуийщ
IyouI am yours
"I am yours."
Westсэшъосышъошъуй
Eastсэфэсыфийщ
Iyou (pl.)I am yours (pl.)
"I am yours (plural)."
Westотэутэтый
Eastуэдэудэдейщ
youweyou are ours
"You are ours."
Westмыунэртэтый
Eastмыунэрдэдейщ
thishouseit is ours
"This house is ours."
Westащсэсрый
Eastабысэсырейщ
himII am his
"I am his."
Westащарий
Eastабыарейщ
hisitit is his
"It is his."
Westмытхылъхэряех
Eastмытхылъхэряйхэщ
thisbooksthey are theirs
"These books are theirs."

Possessive Prefixes

Possession is a key grammatical feature in Adyghe. Unlike independent possessive pronouns ("mine"), these are prefixes attached directly to the noun. Nouns are divided into two categories based on the relationship between the possessor and the possessed:[8]

  • Inalienable (Organic) possession: Used for things that cannot be separated from the possessor (body parts, family, intrinsic positions).
  • Alienable (Proprietary) possession: Used for transferable property, objects, and concepts.

Note: This distinction is strictly maintained in West Adyghe. In Eastern Circassian (Kabardian), this distinction has largely disappeared, and the "Alienable" prefixes are used for almost all nouns.

Inalienable possession

In West Adyghe, inalienable possession is marked by short prefixes attached to the noun stem. This category includes:[9]

  • Body parts: e.g., head, heart, leg.
  • Kinship terms: e.g., mother, brother, daughter.
  • Name: ыцӏэ
  • Part-whole relations: ычӏэгъ (its under), ыкӏоцӏ (its inside), ыпэ (its front/nose).
Person Prefix Example (Head)
West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian) West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian)
1st Sing с- / сы- си- с-шъхьэ си щхьэ
2nd Sing п- / у- уи- п-шъхьэ уи щхьэ
3rd Sing ы- и- ы-шъхьэ и щхьэ
1st Plur т- / ты- ди- т-шъхьэ ди щхьэ
2nd Plur шъу- фи- шъу-шъхьэ фи щхьэ
3rd Plur а- я- а-шъхьэ я щхьэ

Alienable possession

Alienable possession is used for separable items, such as property, animals, concepts, and material objects. In West Adyghe, these prefixes involve the additional vowel -и- (-i-). In Kabardian, these same prefixes are used for almost all situations.[10][11]

Person Prefix Example (House)
West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian) West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian)
1st Sing си- си- си-унэ си унэ
2nd Sing уи- уи- уи-унэ уи унэ
3rd Sing и- и- и-унэ и унэ
1st Plur ти- ди- ти-унэ ди унэ
2nd Plur шъуи- фи- шъуи-унэ фи унэ
3rd Plur я- я- я-унэ я унэ

Predicative possession

The possessive prefixes can likewise combine with the absolutive person prefixes directly on a possessed noun, producing predicates of the type "you are my child". The structure is [subject prefix] + [possessive prefix] + noun: о сэ у-си-кӏал "you are my child" (2sg. subject + 1sg. possessor + "child").

As with the possessive pronouns, the third-person possessive prefixes и- and я- take the linking consonant р after a subject prefix: у-ри-кӏал "you are his child".

West Adyghe (prefix combinations)
Possessor Subject
I You (sg.) He/She/It We You (pl.) They
My — уси- си- — шъуси- си-…-эх
Your (sg.) сыуи- — уи- тыуи- — уи-…-эх
His/Her сри- ури- и- три- шъури- и-…-эх
Our — ути- ти- — шъути- ти-…-эх
Your (pl.) сышъуи- — шъуи- тышъуи- — шъуи-…-эх
Their сря- уря- я- тря- шъуря- я-…-эх
East Circassian (Kabardian; declaratives additionally take -щ)
Possessor Subject
I You (sg.) He/She/It We You (pl.) They
My — уси- си- — фыси- си-…-хэ
Your (sg.) сыуи- — уи- дыуи- — уи-…-хэ
His/Her сыри- ури- и- дыри- фыри- и-…-хэ
Our — уди- ди- — фыди- ди-…-хэ
Your (pl.) сыфи- — фи- дыфи- — фи-…-хэ
Their сыря- уря- я- дыря- фыря- я-…-хэ

A plural subject is marked on the noun: шъусикӏалэх "you (pl.) are my children" (East фысищӏалэхэщ).

Examples:

Westосэусикӏал
Eastуэсэусищӏалэщ
youIyou are my child
"You are my child."
Westсэосыуикӏал
Eastсэуэсыуищӏалэщ
IyouI am your child
"I am your child."
Westарсикӏал
Eastарсищӏалэщ
hehe is my child
"He is my child."
Westащоурикӏал
Eastабыуэурищӏалэщ
hisyouyou are his child
"You are his child."
Westотэутикӏал
Eastуэдэудищӏалэщ
youweyou are our child
"You are our child."
Westосэусиныбджэгъу
Eastуэсэусиныбжьэгъущ
youIyou are my friend
"You are my friend."
Westшъосэшъусикӏалэх
Eastфэсэфысищӏалэхэщ
you (pl.)Iyou are my children
"You (plural) are my children."

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns correspond to English Wh-words.[12]

Interrogative Pronous[13]

Meaning West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian)
who хэт хэт
what / which сыд сыт
why сыда сыт щхьэкӏэ
where тыдэ дэнэ
how much тхьапш дапщэ
which one тары дэнэ
when сыдигъу сыт щыгъуэ

Examples:

Westхэткъэкӏуагъэ?
Eastхэткъэкӏуар?
whocame
"Who came?"
Westсыдкӏалэмыцӏэ?
Eastсытщӏалэми цӏэр?
whatthe boyhis name
"What is the boy's name?"
Westнепэтыдэущыӏэщт?
Eastнобэдэнэущыӏэну?
todaywhereyou will be
"Today where will you be?"

Indefinite pronouns

The main indefinite pronoun is someone/something.[14]

Case Singular Plural
West East West East
Absolutive зыгорэ зыгуэр зыгорэхэр зыгуэрхэр
Ergative зыгорэм зыгуэрым зыгорэхэмэ зыгуэрхэм
Instrumental зыгорэ(м)кӏэ зыгуэр(ым)кӏэ зыгорэхэ(м)кӏэ зыгуэрхэ(м)кӏэ

Examples:

Westзыгорэпчъэмкъытеуагъ
Eastзыгуэрбжэмкъытеуащ
someonedoorknocked
"Someone has knocked the door."
Westкӏалэ горэмбэнанэрешхы
Eastщӏалэ гуэрымбананэрешх
some boybananaeats
"Some boy is eating the banana."
Westпшъэшъэдахэ горэммыркъысиӏуагъ
Eastпщащэдахэ гуэрыммыркъызжиӏащ
girlsome prettythis(s)he told me
"Some pretty girl told me this."

Indicatory pronouns

Indicatory pronouns are predicative forms used to say "It is X".[15]

Meaning West (Adyghe) East (Kabardian)
Cyrillic IPA Cyrillic IPA
it is me сэры [sarə] сэращ [saraːɕ]
it is you оры [warə] уэращ [waraːɕ]
it is him/her ежьыр [jaʑər] аращ [aːraːɕ]
it is us тэры [tarə] дэращ [daraːɕ]
it is you (pl) шъоры [ʃʷarə] фэращ [faraːɕ]
it is them ежьхэр [jaʑəxar] ахэращ [aːxaraːɕ]
that is it ары [aːrə] аращ [aːraːɕ]
this one is мары [maːrə] мыращ [məraːɕ]
that one is моры [morə] моращ [moraːɕ]
exactly that джары [d͡ʒaːrə] аращ [aːraːɕ]

Examples:

Westсэрыкъэшъугъотынфае
Eastсэращфызылъыхъуэнхуейр
it is meto findnecessary
"The one you must find is me."
Westарыкъысиӏуагъэ
Eastаращкъызжиӏар
that iswhat (s)he told me
"That is what he told me."

Dialectal variations (Shapsug)

The Shapsug dialect of West Adyghe preserves specific demonstrative forms that differ from the standard literary language. These include the specific proximal дымы ("this one right here") and the specific distal дымо ("that one way over there").[16]

Case Specific Proximal (This here) Specific Distal (That over there)
Cyrillic IPA Cyrillic IPA
Singular
Absolutive дымыр [dəmər] дымор [dəmor]
Ergative дымыщ [dəməɕ] дымощ [dəmoɕ]
Instrumental дымыщкӏэ [dəməɕt͡ʃʼa] дымощкӏэ [dəmoɕt͡ʃʼa]
Adverbial дымырэу [dəməraw] дыморэу [dəmoraw]
Plural
Absolutive дымыхэр [dəməxar] дымохэр [dəmoxar]
Ergative дымыхэмэ [dəməxama] дымохэмэ [dəmoxama]
Instrumental дымыхэмкӏэ [dəməxamt͡ʃʼa] дымохэмкӏэ [dəmoxamt͡ʃʼa]
Adverbial дымыхэрэу [dəməxaraw] дымохэрэу [dəmoxaraw]

Dialectal Examples:

дымощицуакъэышъоолъэгъуа?
[dəmoɕjət͡sʷaːqaəʃʷawaɬaʁʷaː]
that over there (erg.)his shoeits colordo you see it?
"Do you see the color of that person's shoe over there?"
дыморкӏалэукъысэуагъэр
[dəmort͡ʃʼaːɮawqəsawaːʁar]
that over there (abs.)boy (adv.)the one that hit me
"That is the boy that hit me over there."

Dialectal Indicatory Forms:

дыморыкӏалэусфэсӏуагъэ
[dəmorət͡ʃaːlawsəfasʔʷaːʁa]
that is over thereboy (adv.)the one I talked about
"Over there is the boy I talked about."

References

  1. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 25-26.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  2. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. pp. 70–73.
  3. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. pp. 165–168.
  4. ↑ Kumakhov, Mukhadin; Vamling, Karina (2009). Circassian Clause Structure. Caucasus Studies 1. Malmö: Malmö University. pp. 95–97. ISBN 978-91-7104-083-1.
  5. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. pp. 86–87.
  7. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. pp. 172–175.
  8. ↑ Аркадьев, П. М.; et al. (2009). Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка. Москва: РГГУ. pp. 55–58. ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0.
  9. ↑ Кумахов, Мухадин; Вамлинг, Карина (2006). Эргативность в черкесских языках / Circassian Clause Structure. Malmö: Malmö University. pp. 112–115. ISBN 91-631-9191-1.
  10. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 27.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  11. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. pp. 92–95.
  12. ↑ Урыс, Хь. Щ. (2001). Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: Эльбрус. p. 170.
  13. ↑ Matasović, Ranko (2010). A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian) (PDF). Translated by Tena Gnjatović (9th ed.). Zagreb. p. 27-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. ↑ Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. (1966). Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство. p. 85.
  15. ↑ Кумахов, М. А. (1964). Морфология адыгских языков. Синхронно-диахронная характеристика. I. Введение, структура слова, словообразование частей речи. Нальчик: Кабардино-Балкарское книжное издательство. pp. 90–92.
  16. ↑ Шагиров, А. К. (1977). Этимологический словарь адыгских (черкесских) языков. А-Н. Москва: Издательство «Наука». pp. 120–122.

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source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronouns_in_Circassian