A Chinese calligraphic manuscript on brownish paper, featuring a red seal impression.
An edict from the Ming dynasty concludes with the date "the twenty-third day of the third month of the ninth year of the Zhengde era" (正德九年三月二十三日). "Zhengde" was the era name used during the reign of the Zhengde Emperor (1506–1521).

The Ming dynasty was an imperial dynasty that ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (960–1912). The dynasty was founded by the Hongwu Emperor, who successfully led a rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, forcing the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper.[1] After 276 years of rule,[2] the Ming fell in 1644 when a rebel army led by Li Zicheng captured its primary capital, Beijing.[3] Li subsequently established the Shun dynasty but was in turn defeated by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which occupied northern China in the same year.[4] Although they lost control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family—collectively known as the Southern Ming—continued to rule over southern China but were gradually pushed back by the Manchus until the last emperor, the Yongli Emperor, was executed in 1662 in Burma.[5]

The Ming dynasty continued the use of era names, a system introduced by Emperor Wu of Han in 114 BC,[6] or more formally in 110 BC.[7] An era name (年號; Niánhào), or "reign motto", was chosen at the beginning of an emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, or social conditions of the time.[8] During the Ming dynasty, with the exception of Emperor Yingzong, who had two separate reigns, each emperor used only one era name throughout his reign,[a] whereas emperors of earlier dynasties often adopted multiple era names.[b] As a result, Ming emperors are commonly referred to by their era names.[11]

The Ming had a total of 17 era names. The first, Hongwu, was inaugurated by the Hongwu Emperor in 1368, while the last, Chongzhen, ended when the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide during the fall of Beijing in 1644. The longest-used era name was Wanli, lasting 48 years, while the shortest was Taichang, which succeeded Wanli and lasted only about four months.[12]

The Southern Ming continued the use of era names, employing four in total: Hongguang, Longwu, Shaowu, and Yongli. The longest-lasting was Yongli, which endured for 16 years, while the shortest was Hongguang, lasting only five months;[12] Shaowu, by contrast, was never effectively implemented.[13]

In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separated each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died, there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year.[14]

Foreign tributary states of the Ming dynasty, such as Joseon and the Ryukyu Kingdom, also adopted and used Ming era names. Following the Qing invasion of Joseon in 1637, Joseon was forced to submit to the Qing dynasty and officially followed the Qing calendar, but secretly continued to use the Chongzhen era name to express its loyalty to the Ming and opposition to the Qing.[15]

List

Ming dynasty

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
Era name Period of use Length of use Sovereign Meaning Derived from[c] Remark
Hongwu
洪武		 1368–1398 31 years Hongwu Emperor Vastly Martial N/a Usage continued by the Jianwen Emperor upon his ascension to the throne. Usage later restored during the reign of the Yongle Emperor.[16]
Jianwen
建文		 1399–1402 4 years Jianwen Emperor Establishing Civility N/a The Jianwen Emperor was overthrown by his uncle, the Yongle Emperor, during the Jingnan campaign. He abolished the Jianwen Emperor's reforms and declared his reign illegitimate, thereby abolishing the Jianwen era and extending the Hongwu era to 1402. It was not until 1595 that the Jianwen Emperor's era and imperial title were restored by the Wanli Emperor.[17]
Yongle
永樂		 1403–1424 22 years Yongle Emperor Perpetual Happiness N/a Initially designated as "Yongqing" (永清), the era name was later changed to "Yongle". Usage continued by the Hongxi Emperor upon his ascension to the throne.[16]
Hongxi
洪熙		 1425 1 year Hongxi Emperor Vastly Prosperous N/a Usage continued by the Xuande Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[18]
Xuande
宣德		 1426–1435 10 years Xuande Emperor Proclamation of Virtue N/a Usage continued by Emperor Yingzong upon his ascension to the throne[18]
Zhengtong
正統		 1436–1449 14 years Emperor Yingzong Proper Reign N/a Usage continued by the Jingtai Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[19]
Jingtai
景泰		 1450–1457 7 years Jingtai Emperor Peaceful Fortune N/a After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong—who had been captured by the Oirat Mongols in 1449 during the Tumu Crisis and placed under house arrest after returning to Beijing in 1450—was restored to the throne and proclaimed a new era, Tianshun.[20]
Tianshun
天順		 1457–1464 8 years Emperor Yingzong Conforming to Heavenly Plan N/a Usage continued by the Chenghua Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[21]
Chenghua
成化		 1465–1487 23 years Chenghua Emperor Accomplishing Civilization Wenzi Usage continued by the Hongzhi Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[21]
Hongzhi
弘治		 1488–1505 18 years Hongzhi Emperor Great Governance N/a Usage continued by the Zhengde Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[21]
Zhengde
正德		 1506–1521 16 years Zhengde Emperor Rectification of Virtue Book of Documents,
Correct Interpretation of the Book of Documents		 Usage continued by the Jiajing Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[21]
Jiajing
嘉靖		 1522–1566 45 years Jiajing Emperor Admirable Tranquility Book of Documents According to Liechao nianhao bianwu, after the Jiajing Emperor ascended the throne, the court proposed three possible era names: Shaozhi (紹治), Mingliang (明良), and Jiajing. "Shaozhi" implied continuing the governance of the Hongzhi era—that is, carrying on the "Hongzhi Restoration" and eliminating the maladministration of the Zhengde Emperor's reign. The Jiajing Emperor, however, chose "Jiajing" as his era name instead of the widely favored "Shaozhi". This choice was intended to signal that his accession to the throne represented dynastic continuity rather than direct filial succession.[21]
Longqing
隆慶		 1567–1572 6 years Longqing Emperor Great Celebration N/a Usage continued by the Wanli Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[22]
Wanli
萬曆		 1573–1620 48 years Wanli Emperor Longest Reign N/a The longest-used era name of the Ming[22]
Taichang
泰昌		 1620 4 months Taichang Emperor Grand Prosperity N/a In the seventh month of the forty-eighth year of the Wanli era, the Wanli Emperor died. In the eighth month, the Taichang Emperor ascended the throne, but died only one month later. In the ninth month, the Tianqi Emperor succeeded to the throne and decreed that the period from the eighth to the twelfth month of Wanli 48 would be designated as the first year of the Taichang era. Therefore, the forty-eighth year of the Wanli era and the first year of the Taichang era fell within the same year.[22]
Tianqi
天啟		 1621–1627 7 years Tianqi Emperor Heavenly Inspiration Zuo Zhuan Usage continued by the Chongzhen Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[23]
Chongzhen
崇禎		 1628–1644 17 years Chongzhen Emperor Honorable and Auspicious N/a Siling dianliji states that when the Chongzhen Emperor ascended the throne, the court proposed four possible era names: Qiansheng (乾聖), Xingfu (興福), Xianjia (咸嘉), and Chongzhen (崇貞). He ultimately chose "Chongzhen" as the era name and further altered the character zhen from 貞 to 禎. Liehuang xiaoshi, however, records that the proposed era names were Yongchang (永昌), Shaoqing (紹慶), Xianjia, and Chongzhen. In the end, "Chongzhen" was selected because it is a homophone of "revival" (chongzhen, 重振).[22]

Southern Ming

Southern Ming (1644–1662)
Era name Period of use Length of use Sovereign Meaning Remark
Hongguang
弘光		 1645 5 months Hongguang Emperor Great Light Usage continued by the Longwu Emperor upon his ascension to the throne[24]
Longwu
隆武		 1645–1646 2 years Longwu Emperor Plentiful and Martial Usage continued under the Shaowu and Yongli emperors upon their accession to the throne[25]
Shaowu
紹武		 N/a Shaowu Emperor Continuation of War Originally planned to supersede the Longwu era in 1647, the era name was never put into effect because the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended beforehand.[26][27]
Yongli
永曆		 1647–1662 16 years Yongli Emperor Perpetual Calendar Usage continued by the Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning until 1683[28]

Notes

  1. ↑ The tradition was later continued by the Qing dynasty and became known as "one reign, one era name" system (一世一元[9] or 一帝一年號[10]).[9]
  2. ↑ For example, Emperor Wu of Han reigned for 54 years (140–87 BC), using 11 era names; Emperor Hui of Jin reigned for 17 years (290–306), using 11 era names; Emperor Gaozong of Tang reigned for 35 years (649–683), using 14 era names; and Wu Zetian reigned for 21 years (684–704), using 18 era names.[10]
  3. ↑ Identifies the textual or conceptual source from which the era name is drawn; where no specific source is attested, the entry is indicated by shading

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Dillon (2016), p. 444.
  2. ↑ Hucker (1958), p. 14.
  3. ↑ Paludan (1998), p. 187.
  4. ↑ Atwell (1988), p. 639.
  5. ↑ Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
  6. ↑ Wilkinson 2000, p. 181; Sato 1991, p. 278.
  7. ↑ Wilkinson 2000, p. 182; Sato 1991, pp. 278–279.
  8. ↑ Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History – Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge – a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  9. 1 2 Liu (2007), p. 276.
  10. 1 2 Feng (2016), p. 25.
  11. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17; Wilkinson 2018, pp. 294–295.
  12. 1 2 Feng (2016), pp. 25–26.
  13. ↑ Gu (2011), p. 290.
  14. ↑ Wilkinson 2018, pp. 885–886.
  15. ↑ Sun (2004), p. 218.
  16. 1 2 Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Wang 2020, p. 207; Li 2004, p. 205; Feng 2016, p. 25.
  17. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. 397; Chan 2005, p. 60; Wang 2020, p. 207; Li 2004, p. 205; Feng 2016, p. 25.
  18. 1 2 Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Wang 2020, p. 207; Li 2004, p. 206; Feng 2016, p. 25.
  19. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Wang 2020, p. 207; Li 2004, p. 206; Feng 2016, p. 26.
  20. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Wang 2020, p. 207; Li 2004, p. 206; Feng 2016, p. 26; Paludan 1998, p. 171.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Wang 2020, p. 207; Li 2004, p. 207; Feng 2016, p. 26.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Wang 2020, p. 207; Li 2004, p. 208; Feng 2016, p. 26.
  23. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Atwell 1988, p. 595; Wang 2020, p. 207; Li 2004, p. 208; Feng 2016, p. 26.
  24. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Dillon 2016, p. 645; Li 2004, p. 209; Feng 2016, p. 26.
  25. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Dillon 2016, p. 645; Li 2004, p. 209; Feng 2016, p. 26; Gu 2011, pp. 290–291.
  26. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Li 2004, p. 209; Feng 2016, p. 26; Gu 2011, p. 290.
  27. ↑ Theobald, Ulrich (25 January 2014). "Zhu Yuyue 朱聿𨮁, Prince of Tang 唐王, the Shaowu Emperor 紹武". Chinaknowledge – a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 31 March 2026.
  28. ↑ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Dillon 2016, p. 645; Li 2004, p. 210; Feng 2016, p. 26.

Works cited

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_era_names_of_the_Ming_dynasty